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The maximum (or reversible) work that can be done by a thermodynamic system at constant temperature and pressure is known as Gibbs energy. The reversible work in thermodynamics means a special method in which work is carried out such that the system is in perfect equilibrium with all its surroundings.
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Yogita Ingle 4 years ago
Le Chatelier’s principles, also known as the equilibrium law, are used to predict the effect of some changes on a system in chemical equilibrium (such as the change in temperature or pressure). The principle is named after the French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier.
Le Chatelier said that equilibrium adjusts the forward and backward reactions in such a way to accept the changes affecting the equilibrium conditions.
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In an aqueous medium, Cu2+ is more stable than Cu+. This is because although energy is required to remove one electron from Cu+ to Cu2+, high hydration energy of Cu2+ compensates for it. Therefore, Cu+ ion in an aqueous solution is unstable.
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A Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is an electrode that scientists use for reference on all half-cell potential reactions. The value of the standard electrode potential is zero, which forms the basis one needs to calculate cell potentials using different electrodes or different concentrations. SHE is composed of a 1.0 M H+(aq) solution containing a square piece of platinized platinum (connected to a platinum wire where electrons can be exchanged) inside a tube.
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Yogita Ingle 4 years ago
General Methods of Preparation of Alcohols 1. Hydrolysis of Halides
Alkyl halides when boiled with an aqueous solution of an alkali hydroxide give alcohol through nucleophilic substitution mechanism.
R-X + KOH → R-OH + KX
This general procedure produces primary and secondary alcohols. Glycerol can be synthesized from propylene by a series of reactions including the hydrolysis of a halide as one step in the process.
2. Hydration of Alkanes
Direct hydration takes place by adding water in the presence of a catalyst.
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Gabriel phthalimide synthesis is used for preparing only primary amines. Phthalimide is first treated with KOH and then with an alkyl halide to form N-alkyl phthalimide. N-alkyl phthalimide on hydrolysis gives primary amine.
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Fluorine does not exhibit any positive oxidation state as it is the most electro-negative element and does not have d orbitals in its valance shell.
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Chemical Methods of Preparation of Colloids
Hydrophilic or Lyophobic colloidal solutions can be prepared by various chemical techniques such as:
- Double Decomposition Technique: When hydrogen sulphide is passed through a solution of arsenious oxide in distilled water, we get a colloidal solution of arsenious chloride.
As2O3 + 3H2S → As2S3 + 3H2O
- Oxidation Technique: A colloidal solution of Sulphur is made to pass through an aqueous solution of sulphur dioxide. It can also be obtained by passing the gas through a solution of an oxidization agent such as bromine water as well as nitric acid.
SO2 + 2H2S → 2H2O + 3S
H2S + [O] → H2O + S
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