Human Rights are those rights, which are inherent in our nature. Without these rights, we cannot live as human beings. Human rights allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, intelligence, talents and conscience. They allow us to satisfy our spiritual and other needs

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, political theorists argued that rights are given to us by nature or God. The rights of men were derived from natural law. This meant that rights were not conferred by a ruler or a society, rather we are born with them. As such these rights are inalienable and no one can take these away from us. They identified three natural rights of man: the right to life, liberty and property. All other rights were said to be derived from these basic rights. The idea that we are born with certain rights, is a very powerful notion because it implies that no state or organisation should take away what has been given by the law of nature. This conception of natural rights has been used widely to oppose the exercise of arbitrary power by states and governments and to safeguard individual freedom.

Socrates reminds these young people that if everyone were to be unjust, if everyone manipulated rules to suit their own interests, no one could be sure of benefiting from injustice. Nobody would be secure and this was likely to harm all of them. Hence, it is in our own longterm interest to obey the laws and be just. Socrates clarified that we need to understand clearly what justice means in order to figure out why it is important to be just. He explained that justice does not only mean doing good to our friends and harm to our enemies, or pursuing our own interests. Justice involves the well-being of all people. Just as a doctor is concerned with the well-being of his/her patients, similarly the just ruler or the just government must be concerned with the well-being of the people. Ensuring the well-being of the people includes giving each person his due.

Simple Majority

• This refers to a majority of more than 50% of the members present and voting in the House.
• Also known as Functional or Working majority.
• This is the most commonly used type of majority.
• When the law does not specify the kind of majority needed, a simple majority is used for passing bills or motions.
• Ordinary bills require only a simple majority.
• For example, in the Lok Sabha, out of the total strength of 545, suppose 45 were absent and 100 abstained from voting. This means, only 400 members were present and voting. In this case, the simple majority needed is 201 (50% + 1).

Fundamental RightsDirective Principles of State PolicyPart 3 of the Constitution of India contains the Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the citizens of India. Articles 12-35 of the Constitution of India deal with Fundamental Rights.Directive Principles are written in Part 4 of the Constitution of India. They are given in Articles 36-51 of the Constitution of India.The basic rights that are guaranteed to Indian citizens by the Constitution of India are known as Fundamental Rights Directive Principles of the Indian constitution are the guidelines to be followed by the Government while framing policies.Political Democracy is established in India with the help of Fundamental Rights given in the Constitution of India.Economic and Social Democracy is established with the help of the Directive Principles of State PolicyThe welfare of each and every citizen is promoted through the Fundamental RightsThe welfare of the entire community is fostered with the help of Directive Principles. As per the law, the violation of Fundamental Rights is punishable.Violation of Directive Principles is not a punishable crime unlike violation of Fundamental RightsFundamental Rights are justiciable as they can be enforced legally by the courts if there is a violation.Directive Principles are not justiciable as they cannot be enforced by the courts if there is a violation.If there is a law which is in violation of fundamental rights then the courts can declare it as invalid and unconstitutional.If there is a law in violation of Directive Principles, then the courts do not have the power to declare it as invalid and unconstitutional.

Fundamental Rights	Directive Principles of State Policy
Part 3 of the Constitution of India contains the Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the citizens of India. Articles 12-35 of the Constitution of India deal with Fundamental Rights.	Directive Principles are written in Part 4 of the Constitution of India. They are given in Articles 36-51 of the Constitution of India.
The basic rights that are guaranteed to Indian citizens by the Constitution of India are known as Fundamental Rights	Directive Principles of the Indian constitution are the guidelines to be followed by the Government while framing policies.
Political Democracy is established in India with the help of Fundamental Rights given in the Constitution of India.	Economic and Social Democracy is established with the help of the Directive Principles of State Policy
The welfare of each and every citizen is promoted through the Fundamental Rights	The welfare of the entire community is fostered with the help of Directive Principles.
As per the law, the violation of Fundamental Rights is punishable.	Violation of Directive Principles is not a punishable crime unlike violation of Fundamental Rights
Fundamental Rights are justiciable as they can be enforced legally by the courts if there is a violation.	Directive Principles are not justiciable as they cannot be enforced by the courts if there is a violation.

Fundamental Rights	Directive Principles of State Policy
Part 3 of the Constitution of India contains the Fundamental Rights guaranteed to the citizens of India. Articles 12-35 of the Constitution of India deal with Fundamental Rights.	Directive Principles are written in Part 4 of the Constitution of India. They are given in Articles 36-51 of the Constitution of India.
The basic rights that are guaranteed to Indian citizens by the Constitution of India are known as Fundamental Rights	Directive Principles of the Indian constitution are the guidelines to be followed by the Government while framing policies.
Political Democracy is established in India with the help of Fundamental Rights given in the Constitution of India.	Economic and Social Democracy is established with the help of the Directive Principles of State Policy
The welfare of each and every citizen is promoted through the Fundamental Rights	The welfare of the entire community is fostered with the help of Directive Principles.
As per the law, the violation of Fundamental Rights is punishable.	Violation of Directive Principles is not a punishable crime unlike violation of Fundamental Rights
Fundamental Rights are justiciable as they can be enforced legally by the courts if there is a violation.	Directive Principles are not justiciable as they cannot be enforced by the courts if there is a violation.
If there is a law which is in violation of fundamental rights then the courts can declare it as invalid and unconstitutional.	If there is a law in violation of Directive Principles, then the courts do not have the power to declare it as invalid and unconstitutional.

Article 80 of the Constitution lays down the maximum strength of Rajya Sabha as 250, out of which 12 members are nominated by the President and 238 are representatives of the States and of the two Union Territories.  The present strength of Rajya Sabha, however, is 245, out of which 233 are representatives of the States and Union territories of Delhi and Puducherry and 12 are nominated by the President. The members nominated by the President are persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as literature, science, art and social service.

The Fourth Schedule to the Constitution provides for allocation of seats to the States and Union Territories in Rajya Sabha.  The allocation of seats is made on the basis of the population of each State.  Consequent on the reorganization of States and formation of new States, the number of elected seats in the Rajya Sabha allotted to States and Union Territories has changed from time to time since 1952. 

Under the Constitution, the Rajya Sabha has been vested with two special powers.

1. Under article 249, the Rajya Sabha may declare the resolution, passed by two-third majority of its members present and voting, that is necessary or expedient in the national interest that Parliament should make laws with respect to any matter enumerated in the State List.

2. (i) Rajya-Sabha is competent to create one or more All India Services if it passes a resolution by two-third majority.

(ii) Rajya-Sabha alone can initiate the proposal for removing the Vice-President.

The facts about the suspensive veto power of the Indian President are given below:

• The bill is kept pending by the President for an indefinite period when he exercises his pocket veto.
• He neither rejects the bill nor returns the bill for reconsideration.
• Constitution does not give any time-limit to President within which he has to act upon the bill. Therefore, the President uses his pocket veto where he doesn’t have to act upon the bill.
• Unlike the American President who has to resend the bill within 10 days, the Indian President has no such time-rule.

A person under the 'veil of ignorance' is unaware of her/his possible position and status in the society therefore s/he would rationally decide from the point of view of the worst-off.
It would be sensible in this situation for everyone to ensure that all resources are available equally to all persons.

Three dimensions of equality are: Economic, Social and Political Equality.

 

Political equality means granting equal citizenship to all members of the state. equal citizenship provides certain basic rights such as right to vote, freedom of expression,  movement and association and freedom of belief to everybody. They can participate in the affairs of the country. 

 

Social equality means provision of equality in society. Equality of oppurtunites need to be provided so that minimum quality of life can be achieved.

 

Economic equality means granting equal economic oppurtunities to all. 

The number of High Courts in India is 25. The list is given below:

Year	Name	Territorial Jurisdiction	Seat & Bench
1862	Bombay	Maharashtra   Dadra & Nagar Haveli Goa Daman Diu	Seat: Mumbai   Bench: Panaji, Aurangabad, and Nagpur
1862	Kolkata	West Bengal   Andaman & Nicobar islands	Seat: Kolkata   Bench: Port Blair
1862	Madras	Tamil Nadu   Pondicherry	Seat: Chennai   Bench: Madurai
1866	Allahabad	Uttar Pradesh	Seat: Allahabad   Bench: Lucknow
1884	Karnataka	Karnataka	Seat: Bengaluru   Bench: Dharwad and Gulbarga
1916	Patna	Bihar	Patna
1928	Jammu & Kashmir	Jammu & Kashmir	Srinagar and Jammu
1948	Guwahati	Assam   Nagaland Mizoram Arunachal Pradesh	Seat: Guwahati   Bench: Kohima, Aizawl, and Itanagar
1949	Odisha	Odisha	Cuttack
1949	Rajasthan	Rajasthan	Seat: Jodhpur   Bench: Jaipur
1956	Madhya Pradesh	Madhya Pradesh	Seat: Jabalpur   Bench: Gwalior and Indore
1958	Kerala	Kerala & Lakshadweep	Ernakulam
1960	Gujarat	Gujarat	Ahmedabad
1966	Delhi	Delhi	Delhi
1971	Himachal Pradesh	Himachal Pradesh	Shimla
1975	Punjab & Haryana	Punjab, Haryana & Chandigarh	Chandigarh
1975	Sikkim	Sikkim	Gangtok
2000	Chattisgarh	Chattisgarh	Bilaspur
2000	Uttarakhand	Uttarakhand	Nainital
2000	Jharkhand	Jharkhand	Ranchi
2013	Tripura	Tripura	Agartala
2013	Manipur	Manipur	Imphal
2013	Meghalaya	Meghalaya	Shillong
2019	Telangana	Telangana	Hyderabad
2019	Andhra Pradesh	Andhra Pradesh	Amravati

ANSWER
Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991 when it was abolished. The country's first multiracial elections under a universal franchise were held three years later in 1994.

Justice relates all individuals with each other and connect with the fact as to what type of moral, social, economic, political, legal relations are developed together between individuals.

Adult Franchise means all adult citizens of the country should have the right to vote without any discrimination of class, caste, class, religion, or gender. It is based on the basic principle of democracy, which we call equality. It stresses that the right to vote should be equally available to all. It is the bedrock of a democratic system. It enables all citizens to be involved in the governance of their state. 

 

Franchise literally means the right of the people to vote and elect their representatives. The word franchise is derived from the French word ‘franc’ which means ‘free’. In history, it took much time in making itself a universal law. In fact, this was one of the major demands in the long-drawn struggle for democracy. Till date, not all the countries of the world are practising this law. India had implemented this principle on January 26, 1950. Now the minimum age for exercising franchise is 18 years in our country. One must qualify certain grounds for the adult franchise in India. These are:-

 

• One must be a citizen of India,

• One must have attained 18 years of age,

• One must not be of unsound mind,

• One must not have been declared bankrupt by a competent court

Administrative Powers of the Election Commission

• The commission has been empowered to function in accordance to the Delimitation Commission Act and define the territorial boundaries of electoral constituencies for different elections.
• It has been given powers to register and deregister any political party or entity.
• It is empowered to enforce the ‘Model Code of Conduct’ for election campaigns and ensures its implementation.
• It is empowered to keep a check on the election expenses of the political parties. This ensures a level playing field for all the political parties irrespective of their size and thus the capacity to spend.
• It has the power to appoint officers as election observers and expenditure observers from different departments of the Civil Services.

Advisory Powers of the EC:

• The Commission is empowered to advise the President of India regarding disqualification of the members of Parliament and the conditions for the same.
• The Commission also advises the Governors with respect to the disqualifications of members of the State Legislatures
• It advises the High Courts and Supreme Court in matters related to post-election disputes between candidates and political parties.

Election Commission Quasi-Judicial Powers

• The Election Commission is empowered to settle disputes regarding recognition granted to political parties and candidates.
• It has the powers to act as a court for matters related to disputes arising out of the allotment of election symbols to political parties and candidates. No two election symbols are the same, even in different regions.
• It must be noted that the elections with respect to the election of Panchayats and Municipalities are carried out under the supervision of the State Election Commission. The State Election Commissions are in turn advised by the ECI and are answerable to it.

Thank you so much

Now Jammu and Kashmir is not state,it is union territory that's why only six states have bicameral legislature. States are given below 1. Andhra Pradesh 2. Bihar 3. Karnataka 4. Maharashtra 5. Telangana 6. Uttar Pradesh

Presently, Seven Indian States such as Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Jammu-Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, have bicameral Legislatures, these are called legislative councils (Vidhan Parishad), one third of whom are elected every two years, there are graduate constituencies (members elected exclusively by graduates), teachers constituencies (members elected exclusively by teachers), municipal constituencies (members elected exclusively by Mayors and council members of the city Governments).

Bureaucracy is a system of government in which most of the important decisions are taken by state officials rather than by elected Representatives. "Mex weber know as father of Bureaucracy".

What is Bureaucracy?

What do you know about the composition of the Union Cabinet Minister?

Though required to act on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers, in certain matters the President may exercise discretion within reasonable limits. The following are the discretionary powers of the President of India:

1. The President can withhold assent to a Non-Money Bill or send it back for reconsideration.
2. There is no time limit within which the President is required to declare his assent or refusal or return the Bill for reconsideration. He can take as much time as he thinks appropriate.
3. If no political party or leader has majority support in the Lok Sabha, the President has the freedom to decide who should be appointed as Prime Minister.
4. In case the Prime Minister has lost the support of the Lok Sabha, he may, instead of tendering his resignation, ask for the dissolution of the House. The President is bound to act on the advice of the Prime Minister. He can also explore the possibility of forming an alternative government at the centre.

Supreme court judges retire at the age of 65. However, there have been suggestions from the judges of the Supreme Court of India to provide for a fixed term for the judges including the Chief Justice of India.

Gandhi's concept of swaraj: 1. Indian version of liberty. 2. Slogan of freedom movement. 3. Idea of swarj keep on changing. 4. Swaraj for moderates was good govt. For tilak it was self govt. for Aurebindo it was 'purn swaraj' ,for Gandhi swaraj it doesn't mean just transfer of power but giving lite or dignity to million. Swarj in all dimensions. 1. Social swaraj : ending communal violence , untouchability. 2. Cultural swaraj : having respect for ones own culture. 3. Political swaraj : panchyati raj , democratic decentralisation. 4. Swaraj on individual level : concept is mandak upnishada, restrain on our desire.

What is greek nation of polticial

Negative conception of liberty:

• It implies the absence of restraints and rights to do whatever one likes.
• This conception may make the powerful person more powerful to keep the weaker ones on their mercy.
• This conception of liberty faces the following drawbacks:

(a) Liberty is concerned with the area control, not with its source, hence, this is not necessary to have democracy to enjoy freedom.

(b) The state should control the liberty of an individual only up to the limit where he interferes in other’s such liberty. Positive conception of liberty:

• It refers to the society in which adequate facilities are available for each and every section of society to enjoy desirable rights.
• This believes that any individual or section should not hinder the progress of others.
• People can enjoy all freedoms which are permissible by laws.
• It ensures the growth of poor, weak and downtrodden people also.
• It interprets that liberty lies in the removal of hindrances.

A developmental assessment for children under age 3 is an attempt to assess various aspects of the child's functioning, including areas such as cognition, communication, behavior, social interaction, motor and sensory abilities, and adaptive skills.

Thanks sir. .it's very up to mark..!!

The Writ of Quo Warranto: The writ of Quo Warranto is issued to an individual who has usurped a public office. He is asked through that writ about his right to hold the said office. This writ is issued only when there is no other way out for remedying the grievances. Moreover, it can be issued only for a public office and not for the office of any private organization. In reply to such a writ the officer concerned has to legally prove his right to hold that office, otherwise, court can get the office vacated.

The Writ of Mandamus: The writ of mandamus is issued by the Supreme Court to a lower court, an official or an association. The aim of this writ is to protect the right of the petitioner and to get some public duty done by that authority to whom the writ is issued. The Supreme Court can issue this writ only for protecting the Fundamental Rights but the High Courts are empowered to issue it for other purposes also in addition to safeguarding the Fundamental Rights.

The Sapru Committee in 1945 suggested two categories of individual rights. One being justiciable and the other being non-justiciable rights. The justiciable rights, as we know, are the Fundamental rights, whereas the non-justiciable ones are the Directive Principles of State Policy.

DPSP are ideals which are meant to be kept in mind by the state when it formulates policies and enacts laws. There are various definitions to Directive Principles of State which are given below:

• They are an ‘instrument of instructions’ which are enumerated in the Government of India Act, 1935.
• They seek to establish economic and social democracy in the country.
• DPSPs are ideals which are not legally enforceable by the courts for their violation.

Definition: They are the principles that aim at providing social and economic justice and set the path towards the welfare state. Under various articles, they direct the state to:
Article 38	Promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order through justice—social, economic and political—and to minimise inequalities in income, status, facilities and opportunities
Article 39	Secure citizens:   Right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens Equitable distribution of material resources of the community for the common good Prevention of concentration of wealth and means of production Equal pay for equal work for men and women Preservation of the health and strength of workers and children against forcible abuse Opportunities for the healthy development of children
Article 39A	Promote equal justice and free legal aid to the poor
Article 41	In cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement, secure citizens:   Right to work Right to education Right to public assistance,
Article 42	Make provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief
Article 43	Secure a living wage, a decent standard of living and social and cultural opportunities for all workers
Article 43A	Take steps to secure the participation of workers in the management of industries
Article 47	Raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living of people and to improve public health

A constitutional right is a supreme right guaranteed by our Constitution. In case of any contradiction with Constitutional Rights, that law will be declared null and void. These rights aren't applicable to everyone unlike Fundamental Right.

The literal meaning of ‘Prohibition’ is ‘To forbid.’ A court that is higher in position issues a Prohibition writ against a court that is lower in position to prevent the latter from exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping a jurisdiction that it does not possess. It directs inactivity.

Facts about Prohibition in India:

• Writ of Prohibition can only be issued against judicial and quasi-judicial authorities.
• It can’t be issued against administrative authorities, legislative bodies and private individuals or bodies

Politically, our Constitution has been reasonably effective. The government of our country is carried out under the provisions of the Constitution with a democratically elected government that is responsible to Parliament. The judiciary has also been effective in preserving the basic character of the constitution by refusing the legislature or the executive to exceed its authority. However, our political system is still marred by evils of criminalization and corruption which goes against the spirit of the Constitution.