There are four universal or fundamental forces in nature. Without these forces, all matter in the world will fall apart. Force as such is any pull or push that causes an object to alter its physical state (in terms of motion or deformity). Newton defined a force as anything that causes an object of mass ‘m’ to move with an acceleration ‘a’. Following are the four fundamental forces in nature:

• Gravitational force
• Electromagnetic force
• Strong nuclear force
• Weak nuclear force

Thermodynamics is the branch of Physics which is concerned with the relationship between other forms of energy and heat. We can define thermodynamics as: The branch of Physics that deals with heat and temperature, and their relation to energy, work, radiation, and properties of matter.

Quantum theory is the theoretical basis of modern physics that explains the nature and behavior of matter and energy on the atomic and subatomic level. The nature and behavior of matter and energy at that level is sometimes referred to as quantum physics and quantum mechanics.

The branch which deals with the the movement of energy from one form to the other and the relation between heat and temperature with energy and work done is called as thermodynamics. In other terms we can define thermodynamics as the science stream that deals with the study of the combined effects of heat and work on the changes of state of matter confined by the laws of thermodynamics.

The general study of the relationship between motion, force and energy is known as mechanics. It is subdivided into three parts i.e. kinematics, dynamics and statics. Kinematics deals with the study of the motion of the objects without taking into account the forces and energies that may be involved.

The definite integral is defined to be exactly the limit and summation that we looked at in the last section to find the net area between a function and the x -axis. Collectively we'll often call a and b the interval of integration. Integration, in the most general sense, may be any bringing together and uniting of things: the integration of two or more economies, cultures, religions (usually called syncretism), etc. Integration, in mathematics, a concept of calculus, is the act of finding integrals.

• Equation For Position - Velocity Relation:

From the velocity-time graph, the distance s travelled by the object in time t, moving under uniform acceleration a is given by the area enclosed within the trapezium OABC under the graph. That is,

s = area of the trapezium OABC = (OA + BC) X OC/2

Substituting OA = u, BC = v and OC = t,

We get

s= (u+v) t/2

From the velocity-time relation

We get

t= v - u/a

We have

s = (v + u) x (v – u)/2a

or 2as = v² – u²

Mass spectrometry is an analytical method to find the molecular mass of a compound and indirectly helped to prove the identity of isotopes.
A mass spectrometer generates multiple ions from the sample being investigated, then separates them by their specific mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) and then records the relative abundance of each type of ion.

The first law has already given us a qualitative definition of force. Now we are interested in finding out its magnitude. According to Newton’s second law of motion, the net force experienced by a body is directly proportional to the rate of change of momentum of the body. It can be written as:

f ∝ dP/dt
⇒f ∝ (mv−mu)/t
⇒f∝m(v−u)/t
⇒f∝ma
⇒f=kma
Where k is the constant of proportionality and it comes out to be 1 when the values are taken in SI unit. Hence the final expression will be,

F = ma

limits is bascially tending certain value to an impossible value, i use the word tending as it is not practically achievable but theoritically is. for eg. Velocity is. A limit tells us the value that a function approaches as that function's inputs get closer and closer to some number. The idea of a limit is the basis of all calculus.

Motion:-A body is said be in a state of motion if it changes its position continuously with respect to its surroundings with the passage of time.
E.g A bus running on a road, a flying bird etc

Rest:- A body is said to be at rest if it does not changes its position continuously with respect to its surroundings with the passage of time.
Eg A book lying on a table.

When an external force is applied to a rigid body there is a change in its length, volume (or) shape. When external forces are removed the body tends to regain its original shape and size. Such a property of a body by virtue of which a body tends to regain its original shape (or) size when external forces are removed is called elasticity.