A city or a town is a place where food production is not the main contributor to the economy. City people cease to be self-sufficient and depend on the products or services of other (city or village) people. The division of labor is a mark of urban life. There must be a social organization in place. Organized trade and storage is needed because of need of various raw materials for manufacturers in the city. Many different activities need to be coordinated. In such a system, some people give commands that other obey. Urban economies often require keeping of written records.

The name Australopithecus africanus literally means 'southern ape of Africa.

The history of human kind is ancient and many research still going on.

There are a lot of historical things, artifacts, monuments and archaeological sites which tell us about the history of early humans.

Some of them are:

• The paintings and writings in caves

• Tools made up of stone

• Food and lifestyle

• The ancient monuments

• Invention of fire

The development of writing:

(i) The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers. These were about 5,000 lists of oxen, fish, bread loaves, etc. - lists of goods that were brought into or distributed from the temples of Uruk, a city in the south.

Clearly, writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions -because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a involved many people and a variety of goods.

(ii) Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay. A scribe would wet clay and pat it into a size he could hold comfortably in one hand. He would carefully smoothen its surfaces.

With the sharp end of a reed cut obliquely, he would press wedge-shaped (‘cuneiform) signs on to the smoothened surface while it was still moist. Once dried in the sun, the clay would harden and tablets would be almost as indestructible as pottery. When a written record of, say, the delivery of pieces of metal had ceased to be relevant, the tablet was thrown away.

(iii) Once the surface dried, signs could not be pressed onto a tablet : so each transaction, however minor, required a separate written tablet.

This is why tablets occur by the hundreds at Mesopotamian sites. And it is because of this wealth of sources that we know so much more about Mesopotamia than we do about contemporary India.

(iv) By 2600 BCE or so, the letters became cuneiform, and the language was Sumerian. Writing was now used not only for keeping records, but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary laws of the land.

Sumerian, the earliest known language of Mesopotamia, was gradually replaced after 2400 BCE by the Akkadian language. Cuneiform writing in the Akkadian language continued in use until the first century CE, that is, for more than 2,000 years.

The origin of the Miocene hominoids is to be found among the Oligocene primates. The division of the anthropoids into two main groups – the Platyrrhini (New World monkeys) and the Catarrhini (Old World monkeys. Today, there are eight extant genera of hominoids. They are the four genera in the family Hominidae, namely Homo, Pan, Gorilla, and Pongo; plus four genera in the family Hylobatidae (gibbons): Hylobates, Hoolock, Nomascus and Symphalangus. Hominids have evolved from hominoids : 1)Hominoids have a smaller brain. Hominids have a bigger brain. 2)Hominoids are quadrupeds , walk on all fours, but with flexible forelimbs. Hominids,by contrast, have an upright posture and biped locomotion ,walk on two feet.

Features of early cities:

•They were larger in scale as compared to the other human settlements, present at those times. Also, development happened at these places only when there was an increase in food supplies, which made it possible to support a wide range of non-food producers.
•They supported various social groups like artisans, merchants and priests and acted as centres of political power, administrative network, trade and industry, religious institutions, and intellectual activity.
•They could vary greatly in size and complexity. Thus, they could easily be densely settled modern-day metropolises, which combined political and economic functions for an entire region, and supported very large populations, or could be smaller urban centres with limited functions.

•They were larger in scale as compared to the other human settlements, present at those times. Also, development happened at these places only when there was an increase in food supplies, which made it possible to support a wide range of non-food producers.

•They supported various social groups like artisans, merchants and priests and acted as centres of political power, administrative network, trade and industry, religious institutions, and intellectual activity.

•They could vary greatly in size and complexity. Thus, they could easily be densely settled modern-day metropolises, which combined political and economic functions for an entire region, and supported very large populations, or could be smaller urban centres with limited functions.

Mesopotamia is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the  Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the , in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq, Kuwait, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern TurkeyTurkish–Syrian , Iran–Iraq borders

The Regional Continuity model of human origin asserts that modern Homo sapiens developed from different regional populations of archaic Homo sapiens that had previously evolved from regional populations of Homo erectus.

The replacement model asserts that there was a single origin of Homo sapiens in Africa and that these anatomically modern humans migrated out from Africa and replaced all other lesser-evolved humans throughout Europe and Asia.

The Industrial Revolution had many positive effects. Among those was an increase in wealth, the production of goods, and the standard of living. People had access to healthier diets, better housing, and cheaper goods. In addition, education increased during the Industrial Revolution. Many different factors contributed to the rise of the Industrial Revolution in Britain. The new inventions, access to raw materials, trade routes and partners, social changes, and a stable government all paved the way for Britain to become an industry-driven country.

The use of oxen and horses allowed people to sow crops over a much larger area than they were originally able to do by hand. The domestication of dogs and cats protected humans from attack and protected their food from rodents. Animals are used for transportation, for sport, for recreation, and for companionship. Animals are also used to learn more about living things and about the illnesses that afflict human beings and other animals. By studying animals, it is possible to obtain information that cannot be learned in any other way.

Animals are used for transportation, for sport, for recreation, and for companionship. Animals are also used to learn more about living things and about the illnesses that afflict human beings and other animals. By studying animals, it is possible to obtain information that cannot be learned in any other way. The use of oxen and horses allowed people to sow crops over a much larger area than they were originally able to do by hand. The domestication of dogs and cats protected humans from attack and protected their food from rodents.

The use of oxen and horses allowed people to sow crops over a much larger area than they were originally able to do by hand. The domestication of dogs and cats protected humans from attack and protected their food from rodents. Human uses of animals include both practical uses, such as the production of food and clothing, and symbolic uses, such as in art, literature, mythology, and religion. All of these are elements of culture, broadly understood. Animals used in these ways include fish, crustaceans, insects, molluscs, mammals and birds.

Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings and other physical structures. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment from the macro level of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the micro level of construction details and, sometimes, furniture. Architecture began the first time humans built anything to live in. The Great Wall of China was begun around 25 BC, and in the 1st century BC the Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote De Architectura, the first classic work on the art of architecture.

Great Cities of Mesopotamia

• Uruk. Uruk was one of the first major cities in the history of the world.
• Akkad. The city of Akkad was the center of the world's first empire, the Akkadian Empire