Some sources are the:

• Mesopotamian buildings, statues, ornaments taken after excavation,graves, tools and many seals.
• Many written documents are also available to study  the civilisation of Mesopotamian Civilisation.

1) The term Hominoid refers to great apes and humans collectively. On the other hand, Hominids refer to humans and all species more closely related to humans.

2) Hominoids have smaller brain while Hominids have larger brain.

3) Hominoids are quadrupeds but with flexible forelimbs. Hominids are biped and have an upright posture.

4) Hominoids and Hominids have differences in their hands which enable making and using tools.

5) Hominoids have larger jaw while Hominids have smaller jaw.

 Mesopotamian Writing:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

Mesopotamian Writing:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

Humans and mammals such as monkey and apes have certain similarities in behaviours and anatomy.

This shows that humans possibly evolved from apes.

Similarities on the basis of behavior:

(i) Both can climb on trees.

(ii) Both secrete milk and carry their babies with them .

(iii) Both can run and walk.

(iv) Both use sound as a mode of communication.

Similarities on the basis of anatomy:

(i) They have warm blood and body hair are present on body.

(ii) They have different types of teeth.

(iii) Both are vertebrates .

(iv) Both have two feet and two hands.

Differences on the basis of behavior:

(i) Human beings earn money for their families but monkey and apes do not perform economic activities.
(ii) Humans walk upright while monkey any and apes cannot walks upright.
(iii) Humans prepare tools themselves while monkeys and apes do not prepare themselves.

(iv)Human walks on two feet while monkey and apes walk on four feet.

Differences on the basis of anatomy:

(i) Humans have larger body as compared to apes and monkeys.

(ii) Monkeys and apes have tails while humans have no tail.

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• During the revolt only few proclamations and ‘ishtahars’ (notification) were issued by rebel leader to propagate their ideas and persuade people to join the revolt.
• So it is very difficult to reconstruct what happened in 1857 and what were the demands of rebels. The only way to know in detail about revolt of 1857 is by going through details of British officials and to know their point of view.
• Proclamation issued by rebel leader appealed to all sections of the population irrespective of cast and creed. The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims were equally to lose or gain.
• It was remarkable that during uprising, religious division between Hindus and Muslims was hardly noticeable despite the attempt of British government.

• Roman people were polytheists and used to worship several gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva and Isis.
• One of the most important religious sects practiced in the Roman Empire from about the first to the fourth century was Mithraism.
• The other great religious tradition in the empire was Judaism. It considered Jehova as the creator of the universe.
• But Judaism was not a monolith either, and there was a great deal of diversity within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. Thus, the ‘Christianisation’ of the empire in the fourth and fifth centuries was a gradual and complex process.

 A nuclear family is a group of persons consisting of husband, wife and their unmarried children. This is a basic grouping of mates and their offspring/s.
 The joint family usually have three or more generations. But two or more colateral families living together in a common residence and sharing a common kitchen and property also form a joint family.

Polytheism is the worship of or belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God, in most cases transcendent.

The factors responsible for the decline of the Roman Civilization are as followings :
1. Wars and Luxurious Life : Repeated wars and conquests bent and broke the back of democracy. The luxurious and easeful way of living demoralised the ruling class.
2. Slave Revolts : The number of slaves had out numbered the free men. They grew rebellious and could not be quelled by the ruling class.
3. The Weakness of Emperors : The Roman emperors being incompetent and weak could not face the invaders.
4. Spread of Christianity : The Christian religion gave meassage of love and equality. It weakened the rule of emperors since it created rebellions feeling among the slaves.
5. Raids and invasions : Invaders and raiders shattered the Roman Civilization.

In it political sense, ‘absolutism’ is a theory of legislative authority. It holds that the ruler, usually the king, has exclusive legal authority, and consequently that the laws of state are nothing other than expressions of his will (see voluntarism).

Late antiquity in European history refers to the period from the late third century to the mid seventh century AD. This was the period marked by the collapse of the Western Roman empire.

• Transportation helped the export and the import of the goods because of the development of the wheel and sail.
• Goods produced and exported from Mesopotamia included pottery, things made from leather, jewelry, carvings of ivory, etc. Some of the agricultural goods included oils and grains.
• The imported goods included Egyptian old, pearls and ivory from India, silver from Australia, copper from Arabia, and tin from Persia.

Tigris

The Tigris and Euphrates rivers of ancient Mesopotamia were the most important trade routes.

Mesopotamia encompasses the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which have their headwaters in the Taurus Mountains. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region.

• Mesopotamian civilization was based on definite plan. 
• Cities and towns are develop when an economy develops in spheres other than food production that it becomes an advantage for people to cluster in towns.
• Urban economies comprise besides food production, trade, manufactures and services.
•  There is social organisation in place
• Helpful for the city manufacturers.
• The division of labour is a mark of urban life.

In ancient Rome, provinces were generally governed by politicians of senatorial rank, usually former consuls. A later exception was the province of Egypt, incorporated by Augustus. After the death of Cleopatra it was ruled by a governor of equestrian rank only, perhaps as a discouragement to senatorial ambition as Egypt was considered Augustus’s personal property, following the tradition of earlier, hellenistic kings.

The territory of people who were defeated in war might be brought under various forms of treaty, in some cases entailing complete subjection. The formal annexation of a territory created a “province” in the modern sense of an administrative unit that was geographically defined. Republican provinces were administered in one-year term by the consuls and praetors who had held office the previous year.

Rome started expanding beyond Italy during the First Punic War. The first permanent provinces to be annexed were Sicily in 241 BC and Sardinia in 237 BC. Military expansionism kept increasing the number of these administrative provinces, until there were no longer enough qualified individuals to fill the posts.
The terms of provincial governors often had to be extended for multiple years, and on occasion the Senate awarded imperium even to private citizens, most notably Pompey The Great. Prorogation undermined the republican constitutional principle of annual elected magistracies, and the amassing of disproportionate wealth and military power by a few men through their provincial commands was a major factor in the transition from a republic to imperial autocracy.