A number of seals have been excavated from Mesopotamia. These were made of stone and were cylindrical in shape. These seals were fitted with a stick and then rolled over wet clay so that a continuous picture got engraved over it. This work was done by skilled craftsmen. The name of the owner, his God, his official, ranks, etc. were also engraved on it. Seals were used by merchants to send their goods from one place to another. Goods were first packed and a seal was put at the head of the pack to ensure its authenticity. In case seals were found tampered with, it meant the back had been pilfered on the way otherwise it was safe and secure. Undoubtedly, we can say that the use of seals played a significant role in the growth of urbanization.

The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main ‘players’ in the political history of the empire. The success of individual emperors depended on their control of the army, and when the armies were divided, the result usually was civil war. Except for one notorious year (69 CE), when four emperors mounted the throne in quick succession.

The emperor, the aristocracyand the army were the "three main players" in the political history of the empire. The success of individual emperors dependedon their control of the army, and when thearmies were divided, the result usually was civil war. Except for one notorious year , when four emperorsmounted the throne in quick succession, the first two centuries werefree from civil war.

The three main players of Roman Empire in political history are as follows,

1. The Emperor – He was the ruler of whole empire and was Emperor Augustus known to be the one who established the Empire over the republican government abolishment.

2. The Senate – the Aristocrats of Roman Empire were the members of the Senate.  

3. The Army – the powerful guardian of the realm were the Army who knobbed all the mutiny uprising against the empire in the bud.  

Division of labor is essential to economic progress because it allows people to specialize in particular tasks. This specialization makes workers more efficient, which reduces the total cost of producing goods or providing a service.

Division of labour means that the main process of production is split up into many simple parts and each part is taken by different workers .Who are specialised in the production of that specific part.

Division of labour is immensely important in our economic system because it allows for work to be done much more quickly and efficiently than it would be with out the division of labour

Saint Augustine (354-430) was bishop of the North African city of Hippo from 396 and a towering figure in the intellectual history of the Church.
Bishops were the most important religious figures in a Christian community, and often very powerful.

The Mediterranean ports are in the middle of a vast network of trade lanes. And at the southeastern end of the Mediterranean Sea lies the 120-mile long Suez Canal. In 2018, the Suez Canal, which connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, handled over 18,500 vessels accounting for over 963 million tons.

An aerial photograph is a record of the surface features at an instance of exposure. It can, therefore, be used as a historical record.

If you look at the map, you will see that the continents of Europe and Africa are separated by a sea that stretches all the way from Spain in the west to Syria in the east.

This sea is called the Mediterranean, and it was the heart of Rome's empire. Rome dominated the Mediterranean and all the regions around that sea in both directions, north as well as south.

To the north, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two great rivers, the Rhine and the Danube; to the south, by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara. This vast stretch of the territory was the Roman Empire.

Women could not exercise much personal sovereignty in ancient Mesopotamia. The social structure defined women in relation to their families. Society viewed a woman as her father's daughter or her husband's wife -- and not as an autonomous individual. Royal women or those from rich and powerful families enjoyed a greater degree of personal autonomy, in some cases. Mesopotamian women would not inherit their husband's estate if there were eligible male heirs. Women did not often work outside of the house, but some held jobs selling wares they had created or worked as tavern keepers. The 18th century introduction of the Code of Hammurabi gave women the ability to divorce and own property under certain circumstances, even though the code also treated women as property.

Marriage for Women in Mesopotamia society
In ancient Mesopotamian, women were considered ready for a family-arranged marriage soon after they reached puberty. Mesopotamian women did not marry individuals; rather, they married into their husbands' families. The groom's father exercised considerable power in Mesopotamian marriages. For example, he could give the bride to one of the groom's brothers in the event of the groom's death or dissatisfaction with the marriage. The groom's family paid a dowry in most marriages, and Mesopotamian society viewed this as a payment for the groom's right to the bride. Husbands had the power to manage marital assets.

Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like – texts, documents and material remains. 

1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c) Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts

2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts –  Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents

3. Aerial Photographs

Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin.

The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life.

Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists.

Movement of Goods into Cities

There were very few mineral resources in Mesopotamia. The wood of Iraqi date-palm was not good enough for carts, cart wheels or boats. There was no metal for tools, vessels or ornaments. So, it can be inferred that people of Mesopotamia traded their abundant textiles and agricultural produce for wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell and various stones from Turkey and Iran, or across Gulf.

Efficient transport is also important for urban development. Carrying goods on pack of animals or bullock carts would be too much time consuming. It will not make the city economy viable. Transportation over water is the cheapest mode of transport. Unlike animals, a ship does not need to be fed. It used to be propelled by current of the river and/or wind.

Mesopotamia important to Europeans because:

• Mesopotamia has good fertile land and it is considered to be ancestors' land.

• It is very important to Europeans because many inventions and developments started from here only.

• Mesopotamia is important to Europeans because it has Tigris and Euphrates rivers that's why Mesopotamia land is a fertile crescent and the soil is also nutrient-rich.

• This is one of the important reason Mesopotamia is so valuable to Europeans.

Some sources are the:

• Mesopotamian buildings, statues, ornaments taken after excavation,graves, tools and many seals.
• Many written documents are also available to study  the civilisation of Mesopotamian Civilisation.

1) The term Hominoid refers to great apes and humans collectively. On the other hand, Hominids refer to humans and all species more closely related to humans.

2) Hominoids have smaller brain while Hominids have larger brain.

3) Hominoids are quadrupeds but with flexible forelimbs. Hominids are biped and have an upright posture.

4) Hominoids and Hominids have differences in their hands which enable making and using tools.

5) Hominoids have larger jaw while Hominids have smaller jaw.

 Mesopotamian Writing:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

Mesopotamian Writing:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

Humans and mammals such as monkey and apes have certain similarities in behaviours and anatomy.

This shows that humans possibly evolved from apes.

Similarities on the basis of behavior:

(i) Both can climb on trees.

(ii) Both secrete milk and carry their babies with them .

(iii) Both can run and walk.

(iv) Both use sound as a mode of communication.

Similarities on the basis of anatomy:

(i) They have warm blood and body hair are present on body.

(ii) They have different types of teeth.

(iii) Both are vertebrates .

(iv) Both have two feet and two hands.

Differences on the basis of behavior:

(i) Human beings earn money for their families but monkey and apes do not perform economic activities.
(ii) Humans walk upright while monkey any and apes cannot walks upright.
(iii) Humans prepare tools themselves while monkeys and apes do not prepare themselves.

(iv)Human walks on two feet while monkey and apes walk on four feet.

Differences on the basis of anatomy:

(i) Humans have larger body as compared to apes and monkeys.

(ii) Monkeys and apes have tails while humans have no tail.

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• During the revolt only few proclamations and ‘ishtahars’ (notification) were issued by rebel leader to propagate their ideas and persuade people to join the revolt.
• So it is very difficult to reconstruct what happened in 1857 and what were the demands of rebels. The only way to know in detail about revolt of 1857 is by going through details of British officials and to know their point of view.
• Proclamation issued by rebel leader appealed to all sections of the population irrespective of cast and creed. The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims were equally to lose or gain.
• It was remarkable that during uprising, religious division between Hindus and Muslims was hardly noticeable despite the attempt of British government.

• Roman people were polytheists and used to worship several gods and goddesses. Their popular deities were Jupiter, Mars, Juno, Minerva and Isis.
• One of the most important religious sects practiced in the Roman Empire from about the first to the fourth century was Mithraism.
• The other great religious tradition in the empire was Judaism. It considered Jehova as the creator of the universe.
• But Judaism was not a monolith either, and there was a great deal of diversity within the Jewish communities of late antiquity. Thus, the ‘Christianisation’ of the empire in the fourth and fifth centuries was a gradual and complex process.

 A nuclear family is a group of persons consisting of husband, wife and their unmarried children. This is a basic grouping of mates and their offspring/s.
 The joint family usually have three or more generations. But two or more colateral families living together in a common residence and sharing a common kitchen and property also form a joint family.

Polytheism is the worship of or belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God, in most cases transcendent.

The factors responsible for the decline of the Roman Civilization are as followings :
1. Wars and Luxurious Life : Repeated wars and conquests bent and broke the back of democracy. The luxurious and easeful way of living demoralised the ruling class.
2. Slave Revolts : The number of slaves had out numbered the free men. They grew rebellious and could not be quelled by the ruling class.
3. The Weakness of Emperors : The Roman emperors being incompetent and weak could not face the invaders.
4. Spread of Christianity : The Christian religion gave meassage of love and equality. It weakened the rule of emperors since it created rebellions feeling among the slaves.
5. Raids and invasions : Invaders and raiders shattered the Roman Civilization.