During 9^th century of Europe local wars became common. There were frequent localised wars in Europe from the ninth century onwards Good cavalry was required for wars. The amateur present-soldiers were not good enough for those wars. This need was fulfilled by the knights. In this way, knights became a distinct group to achieve this aim. The fall of the feudal power resulted in the decline of the knight during the 15^th century.

The civilization of Ancient Mesopotamia grew up along the banks of two great rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris. In the midst of a vast desert, the peoples of Mesopotamia relied upon these rivers to provide drinking water, agricultural irrigation, and major transportation routes. Agriculture was the main economic activity in ancient Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is important because it is located in the Fertile Crescent. D. Mesopotamia is significant for two reasons, one: It is the first civilization, and two: many important inventions and innovations were first introduced in the city states of Mesopotamia.

The word Australopithecus is derived from Latin word ‘austral’ means southern and a Greek word ‘pithekos’ which means ‘apes’. Hence, the word means southern apes (Southern Monkey). The earliest human is called so because he resembles them.

The term urbanization denotes an increase in the urban population at a rate higher than that of the increase in the rural population. Features of Urbanization
The important features of urbanization are as follows:

1. Fast Growth in Urban Population: Between 1961-71 the growth rate of population in urban areas was over 38%. This was followed by a still higher growth of 46 per cent during the decade of 1971-81. Between 1981-91, the growth was, no doubt, somewhat less at over 36 per cent but it was not inconsiderable.

2. Large Increase in big owns: Another noteworthy feature of urbanization is that there has been a substantial increase in the population of big towns. A substantial increase in population has taken place since 1901 in the big towns, and that a major proportion of urban population resides in them.

 
3. Regional Disparities in Urbanization: The above description provides the all-India picture. However, the variations in the level of urbanization in various states are indeed large and rates of urbanization show surprises. Again, there are variations within the regions of each state. All this point to the diversity of conditions/causes that operate in this vast country, and is suggestive of different perceptions and policies in this field.

1. Mesopotamian Writing:

• The first Mesopotamian tablets, written around 3200 BCE, contained picture-like signs and numbers.
• Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions – because in city life transactions occurred at different times, and involved many people and a variety of goods
• Mesopotamians wrote on tablets of clay.

2. Modern Writing: The greatest legacy of Mesopotamia to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and mathematics, calender.

Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like – texts, documents and material remains. 

1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c) Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts

2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts –  Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents

3. Aerial Photographs

The royal capital of Mari flourished after 2000 BCE. Mari is situated much further upstream on the Euphrates; rather than on the fertile southern plain. Some communities in the kingdom of Mari had both farmers and pastoralists. Most of its territory was used for pasturing sheep and goats. Exchange of materials was the norm between herders and farmers. But access or denial of access to water resources often led to conflict between herders and farmers. Nomadic communities of the western desert often came to the prosperous agricultural heartland. Some of them also worked as harvest laborers or hired soldiers. Some of them became prosperous and settled down. A few gained power to establish their own rule. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians and Aramaeans were examples of such herders.

Fiscal system” may be defined as the apparatus or bureaucracy installed by a state or a ruler in order to take in revenue in the form of taxes, dues, and so on, and also the apparatus designed to control expenditures. Such a system can be studied in at least three aspects: First, its relationship to the ruler or the government; second, its relationship to those groups in the population who serve as sources of revenue (“taxpayers”); and third, the policies it develops in its own interests. The first aspect concentrates on the task the fiscal administration is assigned: raising sufficient revenue to cover expected expenses (or to limit expenses according to income). The focus in this case is on the central administration where political decisions are made and where the final accounting takes place. The second aspect concentrates on the practical process of raising revenue. Thus, the focus should be on the provinces and on the face-to-face contact between fiscal agents and the “taxpayers.” The third aspect concentrates on the fiscal administration itself, the social background of the fiscal agents, and the good or bad functioning of the apparatus viewed as a social organism in its own right. It is the first aspect that has dominated research; in this article, an additional focus will be given to the “provincial” aspect.

Steps taken by Akbar to improve agriculture:

• Acceptance and following of the Todar Mai’s measures by which he ordered periodic survey of all the cultivable land in his empire.
• Abolition of Jagirs who created problem in the surveyed land.
• Implementation of zfibti system in 1582.  
• He assessed the crops in search of best crops and offered and appreciated the farmer with wealth who comes up with best crop of the year.

Islamic taxes are taxes sanctioned by Islamic law.

Islamic taxes include:

i. zakat - one of the five pillars of Islam. Only imposed on Muslims, it is generally described as a 2.5% tax on savings to be donated to the Muslim poor and needy. It was a tax collected by the Islamic state.
ii. jizya - a per capita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states on certain non-Muslim subjects—dhimmis—permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic law, the tax excluded the poor, women, children and the elderly.
iii. kharaj - a land tax initially imposed only on non-Muslims but soon after mandated for Muslims as well.
iv. ushr - a 10% tax on the harvests of irrigated land and 10% tax on harvest from rain-watered land and 5% on Land dependent on well water. The term has also been used for a 10% tax on merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Caliph `Umar ibn Al-Khattāb was the first Muslim ruler to levy ushr

Iqta System

• The Iqtadari was a unique type of land distribution and administrative system evolved during the sultanate of Iltutmish.
• Under this system, the entire empire was very evenly divided into several large and small tracts of land, called the Iqtas.
• These plots of land were assigned to the various nobles, officers and soldiers for the purpose of easy and flawless administration and revenue collection.
• The Iqtas were transferable, i.e., the holders of Iqtas-Iqtadars-were transferred from one region to other every three to four years.
• The holders of small Iqtas were individual troopers. They had no administrative responsibilities.
• Muhammad of Ghur in 1206 A.D. the able king was the first to introduce the Iqta system in India, but it was lltutrnish who gave it an institutional form. The Iqtadari system witnessed numerous changes during the Sultanate period. Initially, Iqta was a revenue-yielding piece of land which was assigned in lieu of salary. However, during Firuz Shah Tughlaq's reign,in the year  1351 A,D, it became hereditary.

The First Crusade took place in 1098-99. Soldiers from France and Italy captured Antioch in Syria and claimed Jerusalem. There was mass slaughter of Muslims and Jews in the city. The Franks quickly established four crusader states in the region of Syria-Palestine. These territories were collectively known as Outremer (the land of overseas).

The discovery of the Sumerian city of Ur has shed light on the lives of the early Mesopotamians. The Mesopotamian cities fell short in terms of town planning as compared to the Harappan centres but followed a uniform pattern nevertheless. The city was divided into three parts - the sacred area, the walled city on a mound and the outer town. The sacred area consisted of the temple tower or the <i>ziggurat </i>dedicated to the patron god of the city. There were also smaller temples of other gods. This area also had the storehouse as well as the offices. People resided in the walled city and the outer town areas. Houses were constructed along the streets, and each house had a central courtyard with rooms attached around it.

Hammurabi was a famous king of Babylonia. He got prepared the world's first Code of Laws. He also got it engraved on a very big stone shaft in the form of 282 articles.

These laws were connected with trade, exchange of money, payment of taxes, theft, murder etc. Most of the laws were based on the principal of "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth".

The code of Hammurabi is inscribed on this seven-foot basalt stele. The stele is now at the Louvre. The code of Hammurabi refers to a set of rules or laws enacted by the Babylonian King Hammurabi ( region 1792-1750 B.C. ) . The code governed the people living in his fast-growing empire.
 

1. The Mesopotamians were the first people to introduce the use of the potter's wheel to the world.

2. They were the first to enter into written trade agreement.

3. They also introduced to the world the idea of a written Code of Law.

4. They were the first people to divide a day into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds.

5. They were first to develop a script and established the libraries and reading rooms.

The contributions: 
1. The Mesopotamians were the first people to introduce the use of the potter's wheel to the world.
2. They were the first to enter into written trade agreement.
3. They also introduced to the world the idea of a written Code of Law.
4. They were the first people to divide a day into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds.
5. They were first to develop a script and established the libraries and reading rooms.

The wheel was a great pre-historic invention. Early men used the wheel to move heavy objects, as a means of transport & for pottery.People even today make great use of this invention.
The invention of the wheel brought about new ways of doing things. This made work easier and inspired even more new ideas for inventions.

The invention of wheel changed the life of early man in the following ways
1) It was used to carry goods from one place to another.
2) It was used to move from one place to another.
3) It was used to make carts like sledges and rafts.

a. Historians have referred various sources to study roman history.
b. These include both literary and archaeological sources.
c. We may give example of  various buildings, monuments which have been used by historians to re create history.

d. They have also used pottery, coins , mosaics of that period to understand and study the rich Roman civilization.

Both Greece and Rome were peninsulas. They both had plenty of mountains, they were both surrounded by sea(s) on three sides, and they both had a Mediterranean climate. But Rome had fertile soil on their Italian Peninsula, while the Greeks had poor soil on their Pelopennesus Peninsula. Rome's political structure provided for representation by two political parties in the Senate. The patricians represented the aristocracy, or nobles, while the plebeians represented the middle-class and wealthy merchants. The Greek government did not have political parties.