Manorial estates were self sufficient estates, it represented division of land into estates headed by the Lord. d. These estates had within themselves, peasants who tilled the land, carpenters, blacksmiths, ​stone masons. e. The land remained under the control of the Lord who rented it to the tiller and received dues.

Mesopotamia existed on the flood plain between two rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, as the name Mesopotamia, derived from ancient Greek “between two rivers” suggests. Mesopotamia existed from about 5000 BC, believed to be the first evidence of human culture and ends with the rise of Achaemenid Persians around 1500 BC. A diverse, richly cultural civilization grew up over several thousand years and was shaped by many ethnic groups.

The word “mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos,” meaning river. Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria. Flax was mainly used to produce oil and linen. Wool production was large with the need for textiles. Sheep and goats also provided milk, meat, and hides in order to produce leather. Donkeys were the main source of transportation.

In Ancient Literacy W.V. Harris provides the first thorough exploration of the levels, types, and functions of literacy in the classical world, from the invention of the Greek alphabet about 800 B.C. down to the fifth century A.D. Investigations of other societies show that literacy ceases to be the accomplishment of a small elite only in specific circumstances. Harris argues that the social and technological conditions of the ancient world were such as to make mass literacy unthinkable. Noting that a society on the verge of mass literacy always possesses an elaborate school system, Harris stresses the limitations of Greek and Roman schooling, pointing out the meagerness of funding for elementary education.It gave some stimulus to critical thought and assisted the accumulation of knowledge, and the minority that did learn to read and write was to some extent able to assert itself politically. The written word was also an instrument of power, and its use was indispensable for the construction and maintenance of empires.

• Both a protectorate and a colony are territories of larger countries. A protectorate is its own state merely protected by a larger country.  A colony is a part of a larger country governed by that same country.
• A state which is a protectorate has the aid of a larger nation when conducting foreign relations. For a colony, all foreign relations are created and dealt with by the mother country.
• Protectorates can be seen as an alliance. The more allies, the stronger the territory and country. Colonies can be seen as a threat to other nations, as it is the spreading of one country.
• Barbados was a protectorate, it was governed by Britain. A New England was originally made up of colonies, ruled by Britain.

 

A dependency is commonly distinguished from country subdivisions by not being considered to be an integral territory of the governing state. ... A dependent territory conversely often maintains a great degree of autonomy from the controlling central state. Historically, most colonies were considered dependencies. Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over the territory. The opposite of independence is the status of a dependent territory.

The period following the fall of the Roman Empire is known as the Medieval Ages, the Middle Ages, or the Dark Ages. In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman civilization from the founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, encompassing the Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC), Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD). The legacy of Ancient Rome is still felt today in western culture in areas such as government, law, language, architecture, engineering, and religion. Many modern-day governments are modeled after the Roman Republic.

The Heart of Rome was the Palatine Hill, the Roman Forum, and the Colosseum. According to legend, Rome was founded on the Palatine Hill by Romulus after he killed his brother Remus. The Romans built up their empire through conquest or annexation between the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD. At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from north-western Europe to the Near East and encompassed all the lands of the Mediterranean.

Roman builders utilized naturally occurring materials, primarily stone, timber and marble. Manufactured materials consisted of brick and glass and composite materials consisted of concrete. The Colosseum, Rome – The most famous building of the Roman Empire. Renowned for its fascinating history, Rome is a city which is bursting with truly incredible, ancient structures, one of which is the magnificent Colosseum. It was the largest structure ever built by the ancient Romans. Also known as the the Roman Wall, Picts' Wall or Vallum Hadriani in Latin, Hadrian's Wall was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

Religion was central to Mesopotamians as they believed the divine affected every aspect of human life. Mesopotamians were polytheistic; they worshipped several major gods and thousands of minor gods. Each Mesopotamian city, whether Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian or Assyrian, had its own patron god or goddess. In Sumerian religion, the most powerful and important deities in the pantheon were the "seven gods who decree": An, Enlil, Enki, Ninhursag, Nanna, Utu, and Inanna.

The first Mesopotamian tablets, were written around 3200 BCE. These contained picture-like signs and numbers. A tablet was made of clay. A scribe would wet clay and pat it into a size which could be comfortably held in one hand. The sharp end of a reed (cut obliquely) was used as a writing tool. Wedge-shaped (cuneiform) signs were pressed on the smooth surface of the tablet; while the tablet was still moist. After that, the tablet was dried in the sun. Hundreds of tablets have recovered from Mesopotamian sites. Writing was used not only for keeping records, but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers, narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes in the customary laws of the land.

The System of Writing: The sound; represented by a cuneiform sign was not a single consonant or vowel, but syllables. So, a Mesopotamian scribe had to learn hundreds of sounds. Writing was a skilled craft. It was an enormous intellectual achievement.

Literacy: Because of the complexities involved in writing, very few people could read and write.

The division:
(i) The division of the year into 12 months according to the revolution of the moon around the earth, the division of the month into four weeks, the day into 24 hours, and the hour into 60 minutes - all that we take for granted in our daily lives has come to us from the Mesopotamians.
(ii) These time divisions were adopted by the successors of Alexander and from there transmitted to the Roman world, then to the world of Islam, and then to medieval Europe.

(iii) Whenever solar and lunar eclipses were observed, their occurrence was noted according to year, month and day. So too there were records about the observed positions of stars and constellations in the night sky.

Martin Luther is one of the most influential figures in Western history. His writings were responsible for fractionalizing the Catholic Church and sparking the Protestant Reformation. The renaissance and reformation had made a big change in Europe because of Martin Luther had made that change from his 95 Theses. People had followed him in what he was saying to the Church and the Church was getting mad so the Church had kicked Martin Luther because he was making a change the Church wasn't ready for.

Islam explains the drive of Muslims over the centuries to meet their economic needs through commerce, industry, agriculture and various forms of free enterprise. Profits are very much a part of such activities, provided they are lawfully obtained (halal). Islamic financial system helps by assisting financial inclusion.
The conventional banking system is based on interest payments at a rate pre-set on the deposits of money. Payment and receipt of interest is prohibited under Shariah Law, so Muslims abstain from banking.

Urbanisation represents the demographic transition or change from rural areas to urban areas. Urbanisation is defined as “the increasing proportion of people that live in towns and cities” and can be viewed at regional, national, continental and International scales. Urbanisation affects the physical environment through the impacts of the number of people, their activities and the increased demands on resources. Urbanisation has negative consequences on health due mainly to pollution and overcrowded living conditions.

Agriculture was the principal occupation of the settled populations in the newly conquered territories. ... The lands conquered by the Arabs that remained in the hands of the owners were subject to a tax (kharaj), which varied from half to a fifth of the produce, according to the conditions of cultivation. The three-crop rotation was the biggest and best change in farming during medieval times, where three strips of the field would be used in rotation to keep fecund soil. Vertical windmills and vastly improved water mills helped as well.

The original Turks were Mongoloid (East Asian) and closely related to other East Asians, including Mongolians. Most Turkic people are still predominantly Mongoloid: Recent genetic studies concluded that there is a “Turkic component” found in every modern Turkic speaking population. With the rise of the Turkish sultanates in the tenth and eleventh centuries, a third ethnic group was added to the Arabs and the Iranians. The Turks were nomadic tribes from the Central Asian steppes of Turkistan. The Turks gradually converted to Islam.

 From 9th century, the Abbasids state became weaker due to decline of Baghdad's control over distant provinces and continuous struggle between pro-Arab and pro- Iranian groups in the army and bureaucracy. After Rashid's death, the empire was split by a civil war between the caliph al-Amin and his brother al-Ma'mun, who had the support of Khorasan. This war ended with a two-year siege of Baghdad and the eventual death of al-Amin in 813.

The Abbasid caliphs established the city of Baghdad in 762 CE. It became a center of learning and the hub of what is known as the Golden Age of Islam. Across the Abbasid Empire, libraries and other scholarly places were established, such as the House of Wisdom. These brought great advancements in astronomy, scientific understanding, ancient philosophies, and Islamic theology. The event that really destroys the Abbasid Empire? The invasion of the Mongols, who sack Baghdad. So to sum it up, the Abbasid Empire fell down due to these reasons: Power struggles, and an unorganized method for succession.

Islam spread quickly because the Islamic state was initially able to expand very quickly. Later, like other religions, Islam spread quickly through trade along the Silk Road in Central Asia and the sea routes in the Indian Ocean and SE Asia. Islam spread quickly because the Koran has positive messages. Many people were willing to convert to Islam because of messages like people who do what is right will be rewarded, and human life and personal property were to be valued and respected.