The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the ‘Principate’.

The Republic was the name for a regime in which the reality of power lay with the Senate, a body dominated by a small group of wealthy families who formed the ‘nobility’. In practice, the Republic represented the government of the nobility, exercised through the body called the Senate. The Republic lasted from 509 BC to 27 BC, when it was overthrown by Octavian, the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar, who later changed his name to Augustus. Membership of the Senate was for life, and wealth and office-holding counted for more.

Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?

A:

Mobile animal herders were not necessarily a threat to town life, because with the people living in towns, they needed to exchange young animals, cheese, leather and meat in return for grain and metal tools. However, they had conflicts with the people living in agricultural villages. The herders raided the villages and seized their stored goods.

The institution that was common in Medieval Europe is called "Feudalism". The lords, who held the "fiefs" on condition of service of service to the king, were called the "Feudal Lords".

They, in their respective "fiefs", were all powerful and acted as petty kings.
The categories of the Feudal Lords:
(i) Dukes and Earls.

(ii) The Barons.
(iii) The Knights.

 

Three divide state

Our understanding of the history of the central Islamic lands between 600 and 1200 is based on chronicles or tawarikh (which narrate events in order of time) and semi-historical works, such as biographies (sira), records of the sayings and doings of the Prophet (hadith) and commentaries on the Quran (tafsir). The material from which these works were produced was a large collection of eyewitness reports (akhbar) transmitted over a period of time either orally or on paper. The authenticity of each report (khabar) was tested by a critical method which traced the chain of transmission (isnad) and established the reliability of the narrator. Although the method was not foolproof, medieval Muslim writers were more careful in selecting their information and understanding the motives of their informants than were their contemporaries in other parts of the world. On controversial issues, they reproduced different versions of the same event, as they found in their sources, leaving the task of judgement to their readers. Their description of events closer to their own times is more systematic and analytical and less of a collection of akhbar. Most of the chronicles and semi-historical works are in Arabic, the best being the Tarikh of Tabari (d. 923) which has been translated into English in 38 volumes. Persian chronicles are few but they are quite detailed in their treatment of Iran and Central Asia. Christian chronicles, written in Syriac (a dialect of Aramaic*), are fewer but they throw interesting light on the history of early Islam. Besides chronicles, we have legal texts, geographies, travelogues and literary works, such as stories and poems. Documentary evidence (fragmentary pieces of writing, such as official orders or private correspondence) is the most valua

Last one write first

#6 HIS MONETARY REFORMS LED TO EXPANSION IN TRADE Roman coinage was greatly expanded and improved during the reign of Augustus. The aureus was the gold coin which was equal to 25 silver denarii.Aureus and denarius of remarkable purity were issued in large quantities at a number of distributed mints. Comprehensive reforms were brought in denominations below the denarius. The absence of bronze coinage was compensated by the creation of abundant mintages in red copper and orichalcum,an alloy of copper and zinc. Coinage and taxation reforms of Augustus Caesar provided stimulus to trade leading to stability and prosperity throughout the roman empire. #7AUGUSTUS TRANSFORMED THE APPEARANCE OF ROME WITH MASSIVE BUILDING PROJECTS Numerous building projects were undertaken during the reign of Augustus. The network of roads was expanded with a number of well-built roads leading to enhance trade. Aqueducts were built and repaired,including aqua Julia and aqua Virgo.many temples were built including temple of Caesar and temple of Apollo palatinus.other renowned constructions of Augustus era include the ferumof Augustus, built to house the temple of mars ultor and provide space for legal proceeding; bath of Agrippa, rome's first imperial bath;arch of Augustus,first roman arch with three passageways;and Ara pacis, an dedicate to pax, the roman goddess of peace. #8 HE SECURED ORDER AND PROTECTION OF ROME BY INSTITUTING POLICR AND FIRE-FIGHTING FORCES Augustus in instituted a new fire-fighting force in Rome called vigiles Urbani(watchmen of the city).apart from combating the common problem of fires,it also acted as a night watch and maintained order in the streets. It was divided into 7 units of around 70 to 80 men with each unit patrollinhmg regions. Vigiles was complimented by rome's first institutionalized police force known as cohortez urbanae(urban cohorts). It was divided into three cohorts with each containing around 500men. While the vigiles performed the day-to-day role of policing the streets and protecting against fires, the urban cohorts acted as a heavy duty police force,capable of riot control duties. #9 HE MADE THE PREFECT A PERMANENT OFFICE TO EFFECTIVELY ADMINISTER ROME To ensure regulation of public lands as well as proficient census and tax collection, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions. To efficient administer Rome, it was divided into 14 administrative regions.Augustus converted the occasional appointment of prefect held the responsibilities of supervising all guileds and corporations,ensuring provision of grains from overseas, maintaining the city's sewers and water supply system,keeping the Tiber river clean and maintaining the monuments of the city. To enable the prefect to exercise his authority, the cohorts Urbana's and vigiles Urbano were placed under his command. #10 HE BUILT A STATE RUN COURIER SERVICE BASED ON RELAY STATIONS Augustus Caesar established a system where people of senatorial or equestrian ran were given the responsibility to issues contracts for repair of roads. A commission of five senators called curatores locorum public or um iudicandorum(supervisor of public property)was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult. Another senatorial commission known as curatorial viarum(supervisors for roads)was created to oversee the maintenance of roads.Augustus also created a state -run courier and transportation service known as cursus publicus. It was used to transport messages, officials,and tax revenues between the provinces and Rome through a system of relay stations. Also an efficient fleet was organized to police the Mediterranean.

There are 10 achievement of Augustus: #1.AUGUSTUS FOUNDED THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND WAS ITS FIRST EMPEROR In 31BC, Octavian decisively defeated the forces of Cleopatra and Antony at the battle of Actium. They were forced to withdraw to alexandria and after Octavian besieged the city, they committed suicide. This made Octavian Rome's undisputed ruler.in 27BC, Octavian made a show of restoring power back to the roman senate thought in reality he remained the defacto emperor of the roman empire. And the senate conferred with him with the new title of Augustus.the start of the monarchy of Augustus is either dated to 31BC or 21BC. His reign lasted for 45 or 41 years till his death on 19th august, 14AD. Augustus Caesar is credited with founding the roman empire which lasted for approximately 1400 years. #2 HE WAS PREMIRILY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE TWO CENTURIES LONG PAX ROMANA There had been frequent warfare in the roman republic for centuries. Augustus's victory at Actium in 31BC brought the lengthy civils wars to an end and transform the decaying republic into a stable monarchic regime. It initiative a period of relative peacefulness and minimal expansion in the roman empire which lasted for over two centuries from27BC to 180AD and is know as pax Romana(roman peace). The pax Romana is said to have Been a "miracle"as before it there had never been su h a long period of peace in the history of the region.Augustus is credited for ensuring durable peace in the roman empire through his adminstrative genius and reform which brought stability and prosperity. #3 HE INITIATED RILIGIOUS REFORMS TO REVIVE BEFIEF OF HIS PEOPLE IN TRADITIONAL GOD According to Augustus, lengthy civil wars had let to moral deteriorationof rome; temple across the empire had fallen into delay and its people had lost faith in the gods. He believe that there was an urgent need to reawaken the importance of religious amongs his subjects.Augustus ceasar over saw the renewal and repairs of numarous temples across his empire, and initiated projects to build many more. He work towards renewing the trust of people in the traditional gods revive the spirit of Rome.Augustus era also saw the return of many of the old, popular festivals. #4 AUGUSTUS ESTABLISHE A VERY EFFECTIVE FINANCLIAL SYSTEM IN HIS EMPIRE The financial reforms of Augustus played a criticle role on the subsequent success of the roman empire. Arbitrary taxation had often led to resentment among taxpayers increasing the chances of revolts.Augustus imposed consistent,direct taxation on the provinces in the empire. There were two Main direct taxes: a poll tax(tributum capotis),paid by all adults in most provinces but sometimes by males only,and a land tax(tributum solo).there were also indirect taxes like a 4% tax on the price of slaves. Augustus Caesar's financial system was more effective than any implemented in the empire before. It greatly increased rome's net revenue and established a stable relationship between Rome and its provinces. #5 HE ABOLISHED PRIVATE TAX FARMING Fax farming was a roman practice whereby the burden of tax collective was reassingned by the roman state to private individuals or groups. The system was widely abused and tax farmer were unfair and at times barbarously cruel to taxpayers to maximize their profits, which included any additional amount they could forcible extract. Also tax farmer amassed great wealth and some even influenced the amount of votes for politicians in Rome. Augustus abolished the system of tax farming and replaced tax farmers with salaried civil service tax collectors.

Systems of Government in ancient Greek and Rome:

Ancient Greek and Rome had their federal structure of Government. Later on, they also had Monarchy and Kingship. The Greeks were successful in their democratic city states. The idea of republicanism was developed by the Romans. There the royal persons used to call themselves as the servants of the people.

The difference between the systems of Greek and Rome and ancient China and ancient Iran.

In ancient China and Iran there was no democratic and republican system of Government as in Greek and Rome. China and Iran were ruled by the kings, therefore there was the Monarchical form of Government in both of these countries.

The factors responsible for the decline of the Roman Civilization are as followings :

1. Wars and Luxurious Life : Repeated wars and conquests bent and broke the back of democracy. The luxurious and easeful way of living demoralised the ruling class.

2. Slave Revolts : The number of slaves had out numbered the free men. They grew rebellious and could not be quelled by the ruling class.

3. The Weakness of Emperors : The Roman emperors being incompetent and weak could not face the invaders.

4. Spread of Christianity : The Christian religion gave meassage of love and equality. It weakened the rule of emperors since it created rebellions feeling among the slaves.

5. Raids and invasions : Invaders and raiders shattered the Roman Civilization.

During the ancient civilization the Roman society was divided mainly among three classes :

(i) The Particians or the Rich.

(ii) The Plebeians or the Common People.

(iii) The Slaves.

In Rome, the slaves were employed in agriculture, mining, road construction, workshops and on ships. They were brutally exploited and as a result of it, many used to become crippled in the very young age.

The Roman made a calender on the basis of his knowledge of astronomy. July was named after Julius Caesar and August was named Augustus. September, October, November and December were named after Latin languages which meant seventh, eight, ninth and tenth. The Romans too had a knowledge of medical science.

Patricians: The patricians were the ruling class of the early Roman Empire. Only certain families were part of the patrician class and you had to be born a patrician. The patricians were only a small percentage of the Roman population, but they held all the power.

Plebeians: All the other citizens of Rome were Plebeians. Plebeians were the farmers, craftsmen, laborers, and soldiers of Rome.

Roman's contribution:

1. The Roman laws are the basis of the law of many European countries.
2. The Roman Code of Laws was made by emperor Justinian on this basis, the laws of Germany, France, Italy and Spain were made England also got great help from this Code of Laws.
3. The greatest contribution of Roman intelligence is their law. Their law was based on reasoning. 

At first Kingship was established in Rome. Many centuries later Democratic Government was formed in Rome.

The development of writing
People living in southern Mesopotamia developed one of the earliest writing systems in the world. The system was developed so that information could be recorded
This writing system began with pictures or signs drawn on clay tablets. The signs changed over many years, and this is the story of what happened to just one of the signs. 
 The development of writing
Around 3100 B.C. people began to record amounts of different crops. Barley was one of the most important crops in southern Mesopotamia and when it was first drawn it looked like this.
Scribes drew the sign on soft clay tablets using a pointed tool, probably made out of a reed.

Daily life in ancient Mesopotamia cannot be described in the same way one would describe life in ancient Rome or Greece. Mesopotamia was never a single, unified civilization, not even under the Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great. Generally speaking, though, from the rise of the cities in c. 4500 BCE to the downfall of Sumer in 1750 BCE, the people of the regions of Mesopotamia did live their lives in similar ways. The civilizations of Mesopotamia placed a great value on the written word. Once writing was invented, c. 3500-3000 BCE, the scribes seem almost obsessed with recording every facet of their cities lives and, because of this, archaeologists and scholars in the present day have a fairly clear understanding of how the people lived and worked. The American author Thornton Wilder once wrote, “Babylon once had two million people in it, and all we know about `em is the names of the kings and some copies of wheat contracts and the sales of slaves” (Our Town). Wilder was writing fiction, of course, not history, and there was much about Mesopotamian history still unknown at the time he wrote his play; still he was wrong about what the modern world, even the world of his day, knew about the people of Mesopotamia. We actually know a good deal more than just the names of kings and the sales of slaves.

Temples overtime developed huge structures, built in shape of step pyramids. But early temple were much like house. They were small shrines made of unbaked bricks except that had outer walls going in and out at regular intervals unlike ordinary building. Early temples were like a house because:
(i) The temple symbolize the community as a whole and was the nucleus around which the city developed.
(ii) It was here that the processing of produce- grain grinding, spinning, weaving was done as in household.
(iii) The rulers of early Mesopotamia's cities were priests.They lived and administered from there. Since temples were used for residential purposes they looked like houses.
(iv) The complex was not only a place of rituals and worship but contained warehouses, workshops and living quarters of artisans.

Hammurabi was a famous king of Babylonia. He got prepared the world's first Code of Laws. He also got it engraved on a very big stone shaft in the form of 282 articles.

These laws were connected with trade, exchange of money, payment of taxes, theft, murder etc. Most of the laws were based on the principal of "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth".

The contributions:

• The Mesopotamians were the first people to introduce the use of the potter's wheel to the world.
• They were the first to enter into written trade agreement.
• They also introduced to the world the idea of a written Code of Law.
• They were the first people to divide a day into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds.
• They were first to develop a script and established the libraries and reading rooms.

Examine the position of the Pope in the Medieval Europe.

<hr />

During the medieval period in Europe the Pope enjoyed the position of importance. The Pope began to be regarded as the spiritual representative of Jesus Christ. In this capacity he started interfering into the internal affairs of the Christian kings and their subjects.

The authority of the Pope became so effective that none among the Christian kings dared challenge him.

The Greek society was divided into three classes :

1. Nobles or Upper Class.

2. Demos or free people.

3. Slaves.

The Roman society was also divided into the three groups :

1. The Patricians or the Rich.

2. Plebeians or the Common People.

3. The Slaves.

The upper class in both the countries included in rich and  the landed aristocracy which led a very luxurious life. The second class was comprised of traders, craftsmen, warriors and the cultivators.

The people enjoyed all the civic rights but they had to bear the burden of most of the taxes. For the purpose, they were against the upper class.

The condition of the third class i.e. the slaves was very bad in both the countries. They were bought and sold in the markets. They were treated like animals by their masters.

Is that enough???

'pax Romania's in Latin 'Roman peace'.A state of comparative tranquility throughout the Mediterranean world from the region of Augustus(27bce-14ce) to the region of Marcus aurelius(161-180ce).Augustus laid the foundation of this period of Concord,which also extended to north africa and Persia.

In Rome the society was highly class conscious hierarchies. Even, there were multiple social hierarchies present and mobitity was also possible between the classes as per ancient Rome social hierarchy. The whole society of Rome was divided into classes known as patrician,senators,equestrian,commons,freed people and slaves.