Settlements had begun to develop in southern Mesopotamia from 5000 BCE. The earliest cities developed from these settlements. Some of the cities developed around temples, some developed as centres of trade, and some developed as imperial cities.

Temple Towns: The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. In due course of time, temples became larger. They had several rooms around open courtyards. Temples always had their outer walls going in and out at regular intervals. This feature was absent in ordinary houses.

Amphora, ancient vessel form used as a storage jar and one of the principal vessel shapes in Greek pottery, a two-handled pot with a neck narrower than the body. By placing one hand on the neck of the amphora and the other under its pointed bottom, the person carrying the amphora could control the container, when contents were to be poured into another vessel. The pointed bottoms of the amphorae made them easy to stack in dense layers in the holds of ships.

Rights of women: A woman in Rome had full rights in the property of her father. On her father's death, she could become an independent property owner. A woman had full individual property rights in her husband's property. In other words, a married couple was not regarded as one but two financial entities. Divorce was an easy task and required only a notice either by the husband or by the wife. All these aspects are very modern in the sense that countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq and Congo are still struggling to provide equal rights to women.

Initially, as one might have gathered, the real authority of the republic lay in the hands of the patricians; however, this power could not and would not remain. The plebians, who comprised the majority of the army and did most of the real work, rebelled, going on strike and demanding an equal voice in the government. Out of this struggle came the Conflict of Order, a class “war” that lasted from 494 to 287 BCE. It was a fight that brought about significant change:  a plebeian assembly, the Concilium Plebis. Through this new congress, the plebeians could elect tribunes who, like consuls, served for one year. Their primary function was to safeguard plebeian rights against patrician abuse. Their duties were in many ways similar to that of the consuls; however, they could veto any magistrate decision as it related to the plebeians. Later, to further protect the rights of the plebians, the Twelve Tables also called the Ten plus the Two was enacted as the first record of Roman law - there had never been a written constitution in Rome. By the 4th century BCE all citizens had the right of provocatio populum - the right to appeal the decision of a magistrate, and by 287 BCE the Lex Hotensia stated that laws passed by the Concilium Plebis were binding to all people, even patricians.

Islam is the religion of truth. It is the embodiment of the code of life, which Allah, the Creator and Lord of the Universe, has revealed for the guidance of mankind. Islam is an Arabic word, which denotes submission, surrender and obedience. As a religion, Islam stands for complete submission and obedience to Allah — that is why it is called Islam. The first distinctive characteristic of Islam is its emphasis on correct basic faith, that is faith in Almighty Allah, as the One and Only Being, Who is the Creator, Sustainer and Master of the whole universe, Who alone is worthy of being worshipped and to Whom all of us have to return and account for our deeds done in this life.

Rights of women: A woman in Rome had full rights in the property of her father. On her father's death, she could become an independent property owner. A woman had full individual property rights in her husband's property. In other words, a married couple was not regarded as one but two financial entities. Divorce was an easy task and required only a notice either by the husband or by the wife. All these aspects are very modern in the sense that countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq and Congo are still struggling to provide equal rights to women.

1. For men, the Manusmriti declares, there are seven means of acquiring wealth. These are: Inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work and acceptance of gifts from good people.

2. And the six means for women: What was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal procession or as a token of affection and what she got from her brother, mother or father. In addition, any subsequent gift and whatever her affectionate husband might give her.

3. According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest. Women could not claim a share of these resources.

4. However, women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as Stridhana (literally, a woman's wealth). This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it. At the same time, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables, without the husband's permission.

5. We know about some wealthy women such as the Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta. However, cumulative evidence - both epigraphic and textual-suggests that while upper-class women may have been access to resources, land, cattle and money were generally controlled by men.

The first principle of his message is the belief in one God. The message of humanism is inseparably bound together with his message of monotheism. The Quran has numerous verses which refer to Allah and his attributes but it is directed at man and his behaviour. 

The Quran acknowledges pluralism.

There is no compulsion in religion. Allah has created different communities on purpose, to try and test human beings in what has been given to them. It is His will that the people shall live in peace and harmony with each other.

The message of the Quran is one of hope but not of despair. Compassion and mercy are an ever present theme in the Quran. Hopelessness and the lack of trust in His mercy are condemned in the Quran. Even the sinners are assured not to be in despair of His mercy because Allah forgives all sins. Allah says in His Book: “My mercy encompasses all things.”

Mercy is also a quality of His Prophet, for we are told in the Quran that “to the Believers is he most kind and merciful”. Even a believer should aspire for, if not possess, mercy. The believers are those who are “compassionate amongst each other”, and “exhort one another to mercy”. Man is required to believe in Allah’s mercy and also practise it himself.

Any person who wishes to become a Muslim should recognize that he or she will get all these benefits and much more. However, he or she should realize that they have to earn them by practicing the teachings of Islam.
The following items are some of the benefits to be earned and enjoyed by those who wish to become Muslim:

1. As far as the Creator (whose proper name is Allah) is concerned, you will be able to identify Him and get to know Him, His role and your relationship to His names, you will be able to communicate with Him any time, 24 hours a day, throughout the whole year. As a result of this category, you will be able to know your origin, your roots and the wisdom as to why you are on this planet. You will be able to have good answers to the questions why, how, when, where, what and other philosophical questions.
2. As a result of the first benefit, your loyalty, allegiance, and obedience will be to the Creator himself. You will transcend yourself from all types of allegiance for this world. This means that if there is a conflict of interest between your boss, your job, your government, your system or any worldly relationship with the Creator, you will undoubtedly put your trust in Allah, the Creator of the universe. You will follow Him before you follow anyone else.
3. As a result of the second benefit, you will be able to acquire peace, harmony, tranquility and happiness within yourself, with your family, with people of the world, with the environment and with the universe. One has to remember that the source of peace is Allah, and one of his beautiful names is that He is The Peace.
4. As an endorsement to the third benefit, you will get rid of the extra electrostatic charges from your brain and the central nervous system by performing the daily Salah (prayer). Through Salah, you are to prostrate by putting your forehead to the floor; and as such are grounding yourself, and you are discharging these extra charges into the ground. As a result of this act, you will get rid of many of the neurological diseases from your body.
5. As a result of the fourth benefit, you will acquire a pleasant personality. You will be friendly and amicable. You would not need to drink alcohol, to use drugs or to get involved in vulgarity or immorality.
6. Through the experience of fasting in Islam, you will be able to have self-control, self-restraint, self-discipline, self-education, self-evaluation, and self-obedience to Allah the Creator. You undoubtedly will be able to improve health, personality, character, and behavior.
7. As a result of the sixth benefit, you will be able to control your lusts, selfishness, desires, greed, ego, and conceitedness.
8. Another side reaction of the sixth and seventh benefits is that you will be generous and hospitable; you will try to purify yourself and your mistakes by sharing your happiness and your wealth with those who are less fortunate than you. Your rewards will manifold, compounded daily until the Day of Judgment.
9. By performing pilgrimage to Makkah, you will transcend yourself from being nationalistic, sectarian, or denominational into being universal. You will be part and an essential constituent of the rainbow of Islam. You will be also part of the brotherhood of Islam with those who already submitted themselves to the Creator. At the same time, you will get rid of any inferiority or superiority complexes. You will also find yourself in synchrony and harmony with all the prophets and messengers of Allah since the creation of Adam and Eve until the last final messenger to mankind, prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him). While in Makkah, you will be able to visit the places of revelation of the Qu`ran as well as the places visited by Prophet Abraham and members of his family such as Hagar and Ishmael .(peace be upon them) You will visit the place where the first astronauts, Adam and Eve landed on earth.
10. In becoming a Muslim, you will do your best to stop all types of exploitations in all their forms: economic, biological, mental, spiritual, psychological, political, etc. You will also work to liberate people and give them freedom of worship, freedom of speech, and freedom of expression. You will be a leader and help lead people to peace, tranquility and happiness.
11. In accepting Islam, you will help to reduce all types of social illnesses in the society: juvenile delinquency, child abuse, domestic abuse, incest, homosexuality, sexual promiscuity, premarital relationships, extramarital relationships, and other vices.
12. As a result of the eleventh benefit, you will reduce and eliminate venereal diseases, AIDS, and other diseases of similar nature in the society.
13. Finally, when you die, you will die at peace. You will have a happy life in the grave and later, eternal happiness. Angels at the time of death will comfort you. They will also show you your place in paradise. On the Day of Judgment, you will be able to see and meet all the prophets and messengers of God to mankind including Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad (peace be upon them). You will be able to see and meet any and all of your friends and relatives. You will live an eternal life of bliss in paradise.

A n s w e r:
T e a c h i n g s of Islam is as follow:

• God, i.e. Allah is one. He is omnipresent and omnipotent.
• People should lead a simple life.

The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the ‘Principate’.

The Republic was the name for a regime in which the reality of power lay with the Senate, a body dominated by a small group of wealthy families who formed the ‘nobility’. In practice, the Republic represented the government of the nobility, exercised through the body called the Senate. The Republic lasted from 509 BC to 27 BC, when it was overthrown by Octavian, the adopted son and heir of Julius Caesar, who later changed his name to Augustus. Membership of the Senate was for life, and wealth and office-holding counted for more.

Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?

A:

Mobile animal herders were not necessarily a threat to town life, because with the people living in towns, they needed to exchange young animals, cheese, leather and meat in return for grain and metal tools. However, they had conflicts with the people living in agricultural villages. The herders raided the villages and seized their stored goods.

The institution that was common in Medieval Europe is called "Feudalism". The lords, who held the "fiefs" on condition of service of service to the king, were called the "Feudal Lords".

They, in their respective "fiefs", were all powerful and acted as petty kings.
The categories of the Feudal Lords:
(i) Dukes and Earls.

(ii) The Barons.
(iii) The Knights.

 

Three divide state

Our understanding of the history of the central Islamic lands between 600 and 1200 is based on chronicles or tawarikh (which narrate events in order of time) and semi-historical works, such as biographies (sira), records of the sayings and doings of the Prophet (hadith) and commentaries on the Quran (tafsir). The material from which these works were produced was a large collection of eyewitness reports (akhbar) transmitted over a period of time either orally or on paper. The authenticity of each report (khabar) was tested by a critical method which traced the chain of transmission (isnad) and established the reliability of the narrator. Although the method was not foolproof, medieval Muslim writers were more careful in selecting their information and understanding the motives of their informants than were their contemporaries in other parts of the world. On controversial issues, they reproduced different versions of the same event, as they found in their sources, leaving the task of judgement to their readers. Their description of events closer to their own times is more systematic and analytical and less of a collection of akhbar. Most of the chronicles and semi-historical works are in Arabic, the best being the Tarikh of Tabari (d. 923) which has been translated into English in 38 volumes. Persian chronicles are few but they are quite detailed in their treatment of Iran and Central Asia. Christian chronicles, written in Syriac (a dialect of Aramaic*), are fewer but they throw interesting light on the history of early Islam. Besides chronicles, we have legal texts, geographies, travelogues and literary works, such as stories and poems. Documentary evidence (fragmentary pieces of writing, such as official orders or private correspondence) is the most valua

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#6 HIS MONETARY REFORMS LED TO EXPANSION IN TRADE Roman coinage was greatly expanded and improved during the reign of Augustus. The aureus was the gold coin which was equal to 25 silver denarii.Aureus and denarius of remarkable purity were issued in large quantities at a number of distributed mints. Comprehensive reforms were brought in denominations below the denarius. The absence of bronze coinage was compensated by the creation of abundant mintages in red copper and orichalcum,an alloy of copper and zinc. Coinage and taxation reforms of Augustus Caesar provided stimulus to trade leading to stability and prosperity throughout the roman empire. #7AUGUSTUS TRANSFORMED THE APPEARANCE OF ROME WITH MASSIVE BUILDING PROJECTS Numerous building projects were undertaken during the reign of Augustus. The network of roads was expanded with a number of well-built roads leading to enhance trade. Aqueducts were built and repaired,including aqua Julia and aqua Virgo.many temples were built including temple of Caesar and temple of Apollo palatinus.other renowned constructions of Augustus era include the ferumof Augustus, built to house the temple of mars ultor and provide space for legal proceeding; bath of Agrippa, rome's first imperial bath;arch of Augustus,first roman arch with three passageways;and Ara pacis, an dedicate to pax, the roman goddess of peace. #8 HE SECURED ORDER AND PROTECTION OF ROME BY INSTITUTING POLICR AND FIRE-FIGHTING FORCES Augustus in instituted a new fire-fighting force in Rome called vigiles Urbani(watchmen of the city).apart from combating the common problem of fires,it also acted as a night watch and maintained order in the streets. It was divided into 7 units of around 70 to 80 men with each unit patrollinhmg regions. Vigiles was complimented by rome's first institutionalized police force known as cohortez urbanae(urban cohorts). It was divided into three cohorts with each containing around 500men. While the vigiles performed the day-to-day role of policing the streets and protecting against fires, the urban cohorts acted as a heavy duty police force,capable of riot control duties. #9 HE MADE THE PREFECT A PERMANENT OFFICE TO EFFECTIVELY ADMINISTER ROME To ensure regulation of public lands as well as proficient census and tax collection, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions. To efficient administer Rome, it was divided into 14 administrative regions.Augustus converted the occasional appointment of prefect held the responsibilities of supervising all guileds and corporations,ensuring provision of grains from overseas, maintaining the city's sewers and water supply system,keeping the Tiber river clean and maintaining the monuments of the city. To enable the prefect to exercise his authority, the cohorts Urbana's and vigiles Urbano were placed under his command. #10 HE BUILT A STATE RUN COURIER SERVICE BASED ON RELAY STATIONS Augustus Caesar established a system where people of senatorial or equestrian ran were given the responsibility to issues contracts for repair of roads. A commission of five senators called curatores locorum public or um iudicandorum(supervisor of public property)was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult. Another senatorial commission known as curatorial viarum(supervisors for roads)was created to oversee the maintenance of roads.Augustus also created a state -run courier and transportation service known as cursus publicus. It was used to transport messages, officials,and tax revenues between the provinces and Rome through a system of relay stations. Also an efficient fleet was organized to police the Mediterranean.

There are 10 achievement of Augustus: #1.AUGUSTUS FOUNDED THE ROMAN EMPIRE AND WAS ITS FIRST EMPEROR In 31BC, Octavian decisively defeated the forces of Cleopatra and Antony at the battle of Actium. They were forced to withdraw to alexandria and after Octavian besieged the city, they committed suicide. This made Octavian Rome's undisputed ruler.in 27BC, Octavian made a show of restoring power back to the roman senate thought in reality he remained the defacto emperor of the roman empire. And the senate conferred with him with the new title of Augustus.the start of the monarchy of Augustus is either dated to 31BC or 21BC. His reign lasted for 45 or 41 years till his death on 19th august, 14AD. Augustus Caesar is credited with founding the roman empire which lasted for approximately 1400 years. #2 HE WAS PREMIRILY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE TWO CENTURIES LONG PAX ROMANA There had been frequent warfare in the roman republic for centuries. Augustus's victory at Actium in 31BC brought the lengthy civils wars to an end and transform the decaying republic into a stable monarchic regime. It initiative a period of relative peacefulness and minimal expansion in the roman empire which lasted for over two centuries from27BC to 180AD and is know as pax Romana(roman peace). The pax Romana is said to have Been a "miracle"as before it there had never been su h a long period of peace in the history of the region.Augustus is credited for ensuring durable peace in the roman empire through his adminstrative genius and reform which brought stability and prosperity. #3 HE INITIATED RILIGIOUS REFORMS TO REVIVE BEFIEF OF HIS PEOPLE IN TRADITIONAL GOD According to Augustus, lengthy civil wars had let to moral deteriorationof rome; temple across the empire had fallen into delay and its people had lost faith in the gods. He believe that there was an urgent need to reawaken the importance of religious amongs his subjects.Augustus ceasar over saw the renewal and repairs of numarous temples across his empire, and initiated projects to build many more. He work towards renewing the trust of people in the traditional gods revive the spirit of Rome.Augustus era also saw the return of many of the old, popular festivals. #4 AUGUSTUS ESTABLISHE A VERY EFFECTIVE FINANCLIAL SYSTEM IN HIS EMPIRE The financial reforms of Augustus played a criticle role on the subsequent success of the roman empire. Arbitrary taxation had often led to resentment among taxpayers increasing the chances of revolts.Augustus imposed consistent,direct taxation on the provinces in the empire. There were two Main direct taxes: a poll tax(tributum capotis),paid by all adults in most provinces but sometimes by males only,and a land tax(tributum solo).there were also indirect taxes like a 4% tax on the price of slaves. Augustus Caesar's financial system was more effective than any implemented in the empire before. It greatly increased rome's net revenue and established a stable relationship between Rome and its provinces. #5 HE ABOLISHED PRIVATE TAX FARMING Fax farming was a roman practice whereby the burden of tax collective was reassingned by the roman state to private individuals or groups. The system was widely abused and tax farmer were unfair and at times barbarously cruel to taxpayers to maximize their profits, which included any additional amount they could forcible extract. Also tax farmer amassed great wealth and some even influenced the amount of votes for politicians in Rome. Augustus abolished the system of tax farming and replaced tax farmers with salaried civil service tax collectors.

Systems of Government in ancient Greek and Rome:

Ancient Greek and Rome had their federal structure of Government. Later on, they also had Monarchy and Kingship. The Greeks were successful in their democratic city states. The idea of republicanism was developed by the Romans. There the royal persons used to call themselves as the servants of the people.

The difference between the systems of Greek and Rome and ancient China and ancient Iran.

In ancient China and Iran there was no democratic and republican system of Government as in Greek and Rome. China and Iran were ruled by the kings, therefore there was the Monarchical form of Government in both of these countries.

The factors responsible for the decline of the Roman Civilization are as followings :

1. Wars and Luxurious Life : Repeated wars and conquests bent and broke the back of democracy. The luxurious and easeful way of living demoralised the ruling class.

2. Slave Revolts : The number of slaves had out numbered the free men. They grew rebellious and could not be quelled by the ruling class.

3. The Weakness of Emperors : The Roman emperors being incompetent and weak could not face the invaders.

4. Spread of Christianity : The Christian religion gave meassage of love and equality. It weakened the rule of emperors since it created rebellions feeling among the slaves.

5. Raids and invasions : Invaders and raiders shattered the Roman Civilization.

During the ancient civilization the Roman society was divided mainly among three classes :

(i) The Particians or the Rich.

(ii) The Plebeians or the Common People.

(iii) The Slaves.

In Rome, the slaves were employed in agriculture, mining, road construction, workshops and on ships. They were brutally exploited and as a result of it, many used to become crippled in the very young age.

The Roman made a calender on the basis of his knowledge of astronomy. July was named after Julius Caesar and August was named Augustus. September, October, November and December were named after Latin languages which meant seventh, eight, ninth and tenth. The Romans too had a knowledge of medical science.

Patricians: The patricians were the ruling class of the early Roman Empire. Only certain families were part of the patrician class and you had to be born a patrician. The patricians were only a small percentage of the Roman population, but they held all the power.

Plebeians: All the other citizens of Rome were Plebeians. Plebeians were the farmers, craftsmen, laborers, and soldiers of Rome.

Roman's contribution:

1. The Roman laws are the basis of the law of many European countries.
2. The Roman Code of Laws was made by emperor Justinian on this basis, the laws of Germany, France, Italy and Spain were made England also got great help from this Code of Laws.
3. The greatest contribution of Roman intelligence is their law. Their law was based on reasoning. 

At first Kingship was established in Rome. Many centuries later Democratic Government was formed in Rome.

The development of writing
People living in southern Mesopotamia developed one of the earliest writing systems in the world. The system was developed so that information could be recorded
This writing system began with pictures or signs drawn on clay tablets. The signs changed over many years, and this is the story of what happened to just one of the signs. 
 The development of writing
Around 3100 B.C. people began to record amounts of different crops. Barley was one of the most important crops in southern Mesopotamia and when it was first drawn it looked like this.
Scribes drew the sign on soft clay tablets using a pointed tool, probably made out of a reed.