Mari was a famous town of Mesopotamia. This city aourished between 2900 BCE to 1759 BCE. It was destroyed by Akkad ruler Sargon in 2350, but regained her lost glory after 2000 B.C.E. when it was made the capital of Amorite Empire.

The Bedouins were nomadic Arab tribes.

i.They moved from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder for their camels.

ii. Some settled in cities and practised trade or agriculture.

The Bedouins were nomadic Arab tribes.

i.They moved from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder for their camels.

ii. Some settled in cities and practised trade or agriculture.

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• Mesopotamia is a flat plain. The excavation work started here about 150 years ago. Sumer region was the lower part of the Mesopotamian civilization. It was the heart of the civilization. Sumerians were the first to develop a civilization in Mesopotamia. That is why the civilization has been named after them i.e. Sumerian civilization.
• As per excavations, there were three types of cities in Mesopotamia. They were religious, commercial and royal cities. Ur, Lagash, Kish, Uruk and Mari were some of the most important cities of Mesopotamian civilization.

The royal capital of Mari flourished after 2000 BCE. Mari is situated much further upstream on the Euphrates; rather than on the fertile southern plain. Some communities in the kingdom of Mari had both farmers and pastoralists. Most of its territory was used for pasturing sheep and goats. Exchange of materials was the norm between herders and farmers. But access or denial of access to water resources often led to conflict between herders and farmers. Nomadic communities of the western desert often came to the prosperous agricultural heartland. Some of them also worked as harvest laborers or hired soldiers. Some of them became prosperous and settled down. A few gained power to establish their own rule. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians and Aramaeans were examples of such herders.

When Marwan II won the civil war that led to his ascension as Caliph in 744, the Abbasids sensed their moment. Ibrahim sent Abu Muslim a black flag signaling the start of a revolt. The revolt began in June 747 in Merv, a city center of the Khorasan region. A rebel army 2,000 unleashed their discontent in revolution and their drove out the governor of the region Nasr bin Sayyar into hiding in Wasit, Iraq.

As the revolution raged, the Umayyads imprisoned Ibrahim, where he would die in his cell years later. But even with the imprisonment of the head of the Abbasid cause, the revolt spread growing into a revolution against the Caliphate. In 747, they captured Herat and wrestled for the control of Persia. In 748, they advanced to Iraq capturing Kufa. Other major cities fell such as Istafan and Reyy. By the late months 749, Abu Muslim and the Abbasid revolutionaries controlled Persia and Mesopotamia. In November 749, with Ibrahim dead in prison in the same year, Abu Muslim and the revolution appointed the new head of the Abbasids, Abu al-Abbas, as Amir al-Muminin or commander of the faithful and Caliph.

In 750, the Abbasids faced a threat from the Caliph Marwan II himself marching his army against the rebels. The Abbasid and the Umayyad armies met in the Great Zab River where the former dealt a decisive blow against the latter. The Abbasid victory forced Caliph Marwan II to flee, first to Harran, a city near the modern borders of Turkey and Iraq, and then to Egypt. In Egypt he was captured and executed by Abbasid supporters. Those responsible for Marwan II’s death sent his head, Caliphal staff and ring back to the new Abbasid Caliph Abu al-Abbas.

With the death of the Marwan II, Damascus and other Umayyad strongholds in Syria surrendered. The tombs of the Umayyad caliphs desecrated. Caliph Abu al-Abbas, however, believed his position as precarious as long as other Umayyad princes remained.Tales recounted al-Abbas ended the threat through a banquet. A banquet where he invited the family members of the Umayyad. Then, he treacherously ordered the killings of the members while he enjoyed the food of the feast. The act cemented his nickname As-Saffah – the Blood-shedder. But 1 Umayyad prince escaped the slaughter, Prince Abdul Rahman ibn Muawiya.

He fled Syria and then into North Africa before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and into the Emirate of Cordoba. There he established a renegade Emirate and later Caliphate – the Cordoba Caliphate. Making the most western province of the Islamic Empire the last bastion of Umayyad Caliphate.  

Town Planning: The discovery of the Sumerian city of Ur has shed light on the lives of the early Mesopotamians. The Mesopotamian cities fell short in terms of town planning as compared to the Harappan centres but followed a uniform pattern nevertheless. The city was divided into three parts - the sacred area, the walled city on a mound and the outer town. The sacred area consisted of the temple tower or the ziggurat dedicated to the patron god of the city. There were also smaller temples of other gods. This area also had the storehouse as well as the offices. People resided in the walled city and the outer town areas. Houses were constructed along the streets, and each house had a central courtyard with rooms attached around it.

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Monasteries were Christian institutions of the medieval Europe where devotee Christians lead a life of isolation dedicated to the worship of God. These monasteries were located far from the areas of human habitation. The two famous monasteries were St. Benedict in Italy and Cluny in Burgundy. The functions performed by these monasteries are as follows:

(a) Preaching: Monks and nuns moved from one place to another to spread the words of Christianity among the people.

(b) Charity: Monasteries served the sick and arranged food for the poor people. The monasteries served as inns for the travellers. They could rest in these monasteries and then continue their journey.

(c) Learning centres: Monasteries provided education to the community children and those who wanted to become monks.

(d) Cultural Enrichment:

(i) Most monks and nuns were educated and learned, so they spent their time copying books and masterpieces like the works of Cicero and Virgil. 

(ii) Monks also wrote chronicles; they noted down all important events of their times.

(iii) Monasteries encouraged development of art and architecture. Monks and nuns served God as his creative artists.

One brilliant example is Abbess Hildegard who developed the practice of community singing in churches. Among living beings, it is humans alone that have a language. Humans may have possessed a small number of speech sounds in the initial stage.

 

Hum log acche h or aap

Nahi bure hai hum log ???

bhot ache hai humlog...??

• Niccolo Machiavelli wrote about human nature in the fifteenth chapter of his book, The Prince (1513). Machiavelli believed that ‘all men are bad and ever ready to display their vicious nature partly because of the fact that human desires are insatiable’. The most powerful motive Machiavelli saw as the incentive for every human action is self-interest.
• Luther argued that a person did not need priests to establish contact with God.  In 1517 he wrote the ‘Ninety-Five Theses’, challenging the authority of the church.
• However, Luther did not support radicalism. The Catholic Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas, and began to reform itself from within.
• William Tyndale (1494-1536), an English Lutheran who translated the Bible into English in 1506, defended Protestantism. He said that clergy had forged the process, order and meaning of the ancient texts particularly because it was in Greek and Latin, inaccessible to the common man.

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The Bedouins were nomadic Arab tribes.

i.They moved from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder for their camels.

ii. Some settled in cities and practised trade or agriculture.

Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who lived between 100 BC to 44BC. His role in the demise of Roman Republic and rise of the Roman Empire is instrumental. After winning many wars, Julius Caesar became very popular and commanding. When he was offered the throne by Mark Antony; he refused the crown. Some people were jealous of Caesar’s growing power and feared that he might become a dictator. Cassius hatches a conspiracy to murder Caesar. He wins over Brutus in this conspiracy because Brutus is the most trusted and respected in Rome. After the assassination of Caesar, one of his friends; Antony; succeeds in motivating people to raise a revolt against Cassius and Brutus.

Senate: The body which had controlled Rome in the days when it was a Republic. Senate was composed of the wealthiest families of the Roman and Italian descent, mainly landowners. Senate was so powerful that emperors were judged by their behavior towards the Senate.

The Caliphate: After Muhammad’s death in 632, there was nobody who could legitimately claim to be the next prophet of Islam. So, his political authority was transferred to the umma with no established principle of succession. This gave rise to the institution of caliphate. As per this system, the leader of the community became the deputy (khalifa) of the Prophet.

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The first four caliphs (632-61)

After Muhammad’s death, many tribes broke away from the Islamic state. Some even raised their own prophets to establish communities modeled on the umma. Abu Bakr, the first caliph, suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns. Umar, the second caliph, shaped the umma’s policy of expansion of power. It was not possible to maintain the umma out of the modest income from trade and taxes. So, the caliph and his military commanders mustered their tribal strength to conquer the lands belonging to the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Sasanian Empire in the east.

On the eve of the Arab invasions, these two empires had declined in strength due to religious conflicts and revolts by the aristocracy. In three successful campaigns (637-42), the Arabs brought Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt under the control of Medina. The success of the Arabs was contributed by military strategy, religious fervor and the weakness of the opposition. The third caliph, Uthman, launched further campaigns and extended the control to Central Asia. Within a decade of the death of Muhammad, the Arab-Islamic state controlled the vast territory between the Nile and the Oxus.

The Islamic Caliphate became one of the largest unitary states in history, and one of the few states to ever extend direct rule over three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia). The Umayyads incorporated the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb, and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).

Through aouth of mesopotamia was desert ,it supportaggriculture because It doesn't rain much so in that way it is a desert, but the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is very fertile.  Food crops grow readily if they have water.

The royal capital of Mari flourished after 2000 BCE. Mari is situated much further upstream on the Euphrates; rather than on the fertile southern plain. Some communities in the kingdom of Mari had both farmers and pastoralists. Most of its territory was used for pasturing sheep and goats. Exchange of materials was the norm between herders and farmers. But access or denial of access to water resources often led to conflict between herders and farmers. Nomadic communities of the western desert often came to the prosperous agricultural heartland. Some of them also worked as harvest laborers or hired soldiers. Some of them became prosperous and settled down. A few gained power to establish their own rule. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians and Aramaeans were examples of such herders.

Anthropologists feel that the information about hunter gatherer societies can be used to understand past societies because they believe that human beings in past societies used to live in the same way as human beings in hunter gatherer societies in present times.

Because they were busy in Playing PUBG MOBILE

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Caz there supply tend to.be decline after the establishment of peace in the 1st century and slowly people give up.the practise of keeping slaves because they needed to be fed and maintained throughtout the year so instead of slaves people started apponting labours

Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like - texts, documents and material remains.  1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c) Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts 2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts -  Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents 3. Aerial Photographs Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin. The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life. Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists. Boundaries of Roman Empire The ancient Roman empire which was spread across the three continents namely - Europe, Asia and Africa.  To the North, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two great rivers - the Rhine and the Danube. To the South, by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara. To the East river Euphrates and to the West Atlantic Ocean. This vast stretch of territory was the Roman Empire. That is why Roman Empire is called an Empire across Three Continents. The Mediterranean Sea is called the heart of Rome’s empire. Division of Roman Empire:  The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases, ‘early’ and‘late’, divided by the third century as a sort of historical watershed between them. In other words, the whole period from the beginning of Roman Empire to the main part of the third century can be called the ‘early empire’, and the period from the third century to the end called the ‘late empire’ or 'late antiquity'. THE EARLY EMPIRE Administration: i. The Army - ii. The Senate - iii. the Aristocracy - iv. The Emperor - v. Republic - vi. Provincial Territory - vii. Taxation Many languages were spoken in the empire, but for the officially Latin and Greek were the most widely used. The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the ‘Principate’ (which means he was ‘leading citizen’, 'Princeps' in Latin, not the absolute ruler). He ruled till 14 BCE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing in Roman empire. The Principate was advised by the Senate, which had existed in Rome for centuries. This body which had controlled Rome earlier, in the days when it was a Republic, and remained a body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest families of Roman and, later, Italian descent, mainly landowners. Next to the emperor and the Senate, the other key institution of imperial rule was the army. Rome had professional conscripted army, which was forcibly recruited. Military service was compulsory for certain groups or categories of the population for a minimum of 25 years. The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main ‘players’ in the political history of the empire. The success of individual emperors depended on their control of the army, and when the armies were divided, the result usually was civil war. Except for one notorious year (69 CE), when four emperors mounted the throne in quick succession. Emperors:  a) Nero, b) Julius Caesar, c) Octavian Augustus, d) Tiberius, e) Trajan Roman empire made unprecedented growth in the field of literature during Augustan age. Augustus played a significant role in expansion of Roman empire.  The ‘Augustan age’ is remembered for the peace it ushered in after decades of internal strife and centuries of military conquest. Augustus appointed Tiberius, his adopted son, as his successor who ruled from 14-37 CE. The empire he was already so vast that further expansion was felt to be unnecessary. Trajan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98-117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding Roman empire. The only major campaign of expansion in the early empire was Trajan’s fruitless occupation of territory across the Euphrates, in the years 113-17 CE abandoned by his successors. Territories: The Roman Empire had two types of territories - dependent kingdoms and provincial territory. The Near East was full of dependent kingdoms but they disappeared and were swallowed up by Rome. These kingdoms were exceedingly wealthy, for example Herod’s kingdom yielded 5.4million denarii per year, equal to over 125,000 kg of gold per year. A city in the Roman Empire was an urban centre with its own magistrates, city council and a ‘territory’ containing villages which were under its jurisdiction. Thus, one city could not be in the territory of another city, but villages almost always were included. THE THIRD CENTURY CRISIS:  The first two centuries were free from civil war, therefore, it was known as period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. But the third century brought in the first sign of internal conflict.  From the 230s, the Roman Empire found itself fighting on several fronts simultaneously. An aggressive dynasty called the ‘Sasanians',  emerged in 225 which expanded rapidly just within 15 years in the direction of the Euphrates. Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed he had crushed Roman army of 60,000 and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.  Simultaneously, a whole series of Germanic tribes or rather tribal confederacies began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the  entire period from 233 to 280 saw repeated invasions of a whole lone of provinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory beyond the Danube. There was a rapid succession of emperors in this century (25 emperors in 47 years!) is an obvious symptom of the strains faced by the empire in this period. Gender, Literacy, Culture The system of nuclear family in the Roman society was one of its modern feature. The family used to be patriarchal in nature. Slaves were included in the family.  Marriages were generally arranged, and there is no doubt that women were often subject to domination by their husbands. The literacy rate was casual and varied greatly between different parts of the empire. The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways. Numerous languages that were spoken in Roman Empire were - Aramaic, Coptic,Punic, Berber and Celtic. But many of these linguistic cultures were purely oral, at least until a script was invented for them.  Among the above mentioned languages Armenian began to be written as late as the fifth century. A. Sources of Entertainment Colosseum - Huge place where gladiators fought with beast. It could accommodate 60,000 people. Amphitheatre - It was used for military drill and for staging entertainments for the soldiers. Urban populations also enjoyed a much higher level of entertainment, for example, one calendar tells us that spectacula (shows) filled no less than 176 days of the year!  B. CRAFT & INDUSTRY Minting Mining Amphorae Making Papyrus scrolls Public baths were a striking feature of Roman urban life Economic expansion  The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc. Wheat, wine and olive-oil were traded and consumed in huge quantities, and they came mainly from Spain, the Gallic provinces, North Africa, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Italy, where conditions were best for these crops. Liquids like wine and olive oil were transported in containers called ‘amphorae’.Spanish producers succeeded in capturing markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. This would only have happened if Spanish producers supplied better quality oil at lower prices. The Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called ‘Dressel 20’. The empire included many regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility. Italy, Sicily, Egypt and southern Spain were all among the most densely settled or wealthiest parts of the empire. The best kinds of wine, wheat and olive oil came mainly from numerous estates of these territories. Diversified applications of waterpower around the Mediterranean as well as advances in water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and the gigantic industrial scale on which those mines were worked. The existence of well-organized commercial and banking networks and the widespread use of money are all indications of Roman economy. A strong tradition of Roman law had emerged by the fourth century, and this acted as a brake on even the most fearsome emperors. WORKERS: Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in the ancient world, both in the Mediterranean and in the Near East, and and not even Christianity when it emerged and triumphed as the state religion (in the fourth century) seriously challenged this institution. Under Augustus there were still 3 million slaves in a total Italian population of 7.5 million. With establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to turn either to slave breeding or to cheaper substitutes. The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to the management of labour. Columella, a first-century writer who came from the south of Spain, recommended that landowners should keep a reserve stock of implements and tools, twice as many as they needed, so that production could be continuous, ‘for the loss in slave labour time exceeds the cost of such items’. The position of slave in Roman Empire was miserable as they were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours.  SOCIAL DIVISION (A) Presbyterian (i) The Aristocratic class (ii) Second Class (B) Plebeian (i) The lower Class (ii) Slaves The social structures of the empire as follows: Senators, Equites (horse men and knights), the respectable section of the people (middle class), lower class and finally the slaves. In the early third century when the Senate numbered roughly 1,000, approximately half of all senators still came from Italian families. By the late empire,the senators and the Equites had merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy. The ‘middle’ class now consisted of the considerable mass of persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy. Below them were the vast mass of the lower classes known collectively ashumiliores (literally- ‘Lower’).They comprised a rural labour force. The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land.  There was a great deal of corruption, especially in the judicial system and in the administration of military supplies.

The teachings are: 

1. There is one all powerful God, ‘Allah’ and Muhammad is his Prophet.
2. Idol worship is a sin.
3. All the Muslims are equal and should regard themselves as brothers.
4. A Muslim must not eat Pork.
5. He must not lend money on interest.
6. He must follow certain rules laid down regarding marriage and divorce.
7. He should have faith in the revelations of ‘Quoran’ which is the holy book of the Muslims.

 

<font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">Reasons for the Decline of </font></font><font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">Feudalism</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The reasons for the decline of Feudalism during the Medieval period of the Middle Ages included:</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Crusades and travel during the Middle Ages opened new trade options to England</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">England started to move from land based economy to a money based economy</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Black Death - this reduced the population of England by one third. Labour became a valuable commodity</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Peasants Revolt - Peasants realised their worth and demanded changes. Charters were granted but ignored by nobles</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">More trade saw the growth of more towns</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Peasants moved away from the country into towns they were eventually allowed to buy their freedom</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Land was rented and the rights of lords over labour decreased</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Feudal Levy was unpopular and as time went by Nobles preferred to pay the King rather than to fight and raise troops</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Armed men were paid a wage and Medieval warfare was financed by taxes and loans</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Nobles became weaker - the Kings took back their lands and power</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">A centralised government was established</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">The Decline of </font></font><font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">Feudalism - the Standing Armies</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The decline of feudalism came when rich nobles were allowed to pay for soldiers rather than to fight themselves. Life changed and Mercenaries were hired from all over Europe. The Mercenaries had few allegiances, except to money, and these paid fighting men were feared throughout Europe. The threat of the Mercenaries led on to the employment of professional, trained soldiers - the Standing Armies and ultimately the end of Middle Ages feudalism in England. </font></font>