The Bedouins were nomadic Arab tribes.

i.They moved from dry to green areas (oases) of the desert in search of food (mainly dates) and fodder for their camels.

ii. Some settled in cities and practised trade or agriculture.

Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who lived between 100 BC to 44BC. His role in the demise of Roman Republic and rise of the Roman Empire is instrumental. After winning many wars, Julius Caesar became very popular and commanding. When he was offered the throne by Mark Antony; he refused the crown. Some people were jealous of Caesar’s growing power and feared that he might become a dictator. Cassius hatches a conspiracy to murder Caesar. He wins over Brutus in this conspiracy because Brutus is the most trusted and respected in Rome. After the assassination of Caesar, one of his friends; Antony; succeeds in motivating people to raise a revolt against Cassius and Brutus.

Senate: The body which had controlled Rome in the days when it was a Republic. Senate was composed of the wealthiest families of the Roman and Italian descent, mainly landowners. Senate was so powerful that emperors were judged by their behavior towards the Senate.

The Caliphate: After Muhammad’s death in 632, there was nobody who could legitimately claim to be the next prophet of Islam. So, his political authority was transferred to the umma with no established principle of succession. This gave rise to the institution of caliphate. As per this system, the leader of the community became the deputy (khalifa) of the Prophet.

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The first four caliphs (632-61)

After Muhammad’s death, many tribes broke away from the Islamic state. Some even raised their own prophets to establish communities modeled on the umma. Abu Bakr, the first caliph, suppressed the revolts by a series of campaigns. Umar, the second caliph, shaped the umma’s policy of expansion of power. It was not possible to maintain the umma out of the modest income from trade and taxes. So, the caliph and his military commanders mustered their tribal strength to conquer the lands belonging to the Byzantine Empire in the west and the Sasanian Empire in the east.

On the eve of the Arab invasions, these two empires had declined in strength due to religious conflicts and revolts by the aristocracy. In three successful campaigns (637-42), the Arabs brought Syria, Iraq, Iran and Egypt under the control of Medina. The success of the Arabs was contributed by military strategy, religious fervor and the weakness of the opposition. The third caliph, Uthman, launched further campaigns and extended the control to Central Asia. Within a decade of the death of Muhammad, the Arab-Islamic state controlled the vast territory between the Nile and the Oxus.

The Islamic Caliphate became one of the largest unitary states in history, and one of the few states to ever extend direct rule over three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia). The Umayyads incorporated the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb, and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).

Through aouth of mesopotamia was desert ,it supportaggriculture because It doesn't rain much so in that way it is a desert, but the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is very fertile.  Food crops grow readily if they have water.

The royal capital of Mari flourished after 2000 BCE. Mari is situated much further upstream on the Euphrates; rather than on the fertile southern plain. Some communities in the kingdom of Mari had both farmers and pastoralists. Most of its territory was used for pasturing sheep and goats. Exchange of materials was the norm between herders and farmers. But access or denial of access to water resources often led to conflict between herders and farmers. Nomadic communities of the western desert often came to the prosperous agricultural heartland. Some of them also worked as harvest laborers or hired soldiers. Some of them became prosperous and settled down. A few gained power to establish their own rule. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians and Aramaeans were examples of such herders.

Anthropologists feel that the information about hunter gatherer societies can be used to understand past societies because they believe that human beings in past societies used to live in the same way as human beings in hunter gatherer societies in present times.

Because they were busy in Playing PUBG MOBILE

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Caz there supply tend to.be decline after the establishment of peace in the 1st century and slowly people give up.the practise of keeping slaves because they needed to be fed and maintained throughtout the year so instead of slaves people started apponting labours

Sources: There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like - texts, documents and material remains.  1. Archaeological : a) Amphitheater, b) Amphorae, c) Colosseum, d) Statues, e) Aqueducts 2. (Literary) Written : (A) Texts -  Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents 3. Aerial Photographs Documentary sources include mainly inscriptions and papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin. The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life. Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists. Boundaries of Roman Empire The ancient Roman empire which was spread across the three continents namely - Europe, Asia and Africa.  To the North, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two great rivers - the Rhine and the Danube. To the South, by the huge expanse of desert called the Sahara. To the East river Euphrates and to the West Atlantic Ocean. This vast stretch of territory was the Roman Empire. That is why Roman Empire is called an Empire across Three Continents. The Mediterranean Sea is called the heart of Rome’s empire. Division of Roman Empire:  The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases, ‘early’ and‘late’, divided by the third century as a sort of historical watershed between them. In other words, the whole period from the beginning of Roman Empire to the main part of the third century can be called the ‘early empire’, and the period from the third century to the end called the ‘late empire’ or 'late antiquity'. THE EARLY EMPIRE Administration: i. The Army - ii. The Senate - iii. the Aristocracy - iv. The Emperor - v. Republic - vi. Provincial Territory - vii. Taxation Many languages were spoken in the empire, but for the officially Latin and Greek were the most widely used. The regime established by Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the ‘Principate’ (which means he was ‘leading citizen’, 'Princeps' in Latin, not the absolute ruler). He ruled till 14 BCE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing in Roman empire. The Principate was advised by the Senate, which had existed in Rome for centuries. This body which had controlled Rome earlier, in the days when it was a Republic, and remained a body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest families of Roman and, later, Italian descent, mainly landowners. Next to the emperor and the Senate, the other key institution of imperial rule was the army. Rome had professional conscripted army, which was forcibly recruited. Military service was compulsory for certain groups or categories of the population for a minimum of 25 years. The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main ‘players’ in the political history of the empire. The success of individual emperors depended on their control of the army, and when the armies were divided, the result usually was civil war. Except for one notorious year (69 CE), when four emperors mounted the throne in quick succession. Emperors:  a) Nero, b) Julius Caesar, c) Octavian Augustus, d) Tiberius, e) Trajan Roman empire made unprecedented growth in the field of literature during Augustan age. Augustus played a significant role in expansion of Roman empire.  The ‘Augustan age’ is remembered for the peace it ushered in after decades of internal strife and centuries of military conquest. Augustus appointed Tiberius, his adopted son, as his successor who ruled from 14-37 CE. The empire he was already so vast that further expansion was felt to be unnecessary. Trajan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98-117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding Roman empire. The only major campaign of expansion in the early empire was Trajan’s fruitless occupation of territory across the Euphrates, in the years 113-17 CE abandoned by his successors. Territories: The Roman Empire had two types of territories - dependent kingdoms and provincial territory. The Near East was full of dependent kingdoms but they disappeared and were swallowed up by Rome. These kingdoms were exceedingly wealthy, for example Herod’s kingdom yielded 5.4million denarii per year, equal to over 125,000 kg of gold per year. A city in the Roman Empire was an urban centre with its own magistrates, city council and a ‘territory’ containing villages which were under its jurisdiction. Thus, one city could not be in the territory of another city, but villages almost always were included. THE THIRD CENTURY CRISIS:  The first two centuries were free from civil war, therefore, it was known as period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion. External warfare was also much less common in the first two centuries. But the third century brought in the first sign of internal conflict.  From the 230s, the Roman Empire found itself fighting on several fronts simultaneously. An aggressive dynasty called the ‘Sasanians',  emerged in 225 which expanded rapidly just within 15 years in the direction of the Euphrates. Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed he had crushed Roman army of 60,000 and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.  Simultaneously, a whole series of Germanic tribes or rather tribal confederacies began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers, and the  entire period from 233 to 280 saw repeated invasions of a whole lone of provinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory beyond the Danube. There was a rapid succession of emperors in this century (25 emperors in 47 years!) is an obvious symptom of the strains faced by the empire in this period. Gender, Literacy, Culture The system of nuclear family in the Roman society was one of its modern feature. The family used to be patriarchal in nature. Slaves were included in the family.  Marriages were generally arranged, and there is no doubt that women were often subject to domination by their husbands. The literacy rate was casual and varied greatly between different parts of the empire. The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways. Numerous languages that were spoken in Roman Empire were - Aramaic, Coptic,Punic, Berber and Celtic. But many of these linguistic cultures were purely oral, at least until a script was invented for them.  Among the above mentioned languages Armenian began to be written as late as the fifth century. A. Sources of Entertainment Colosseum - Huge place where gladiators fought with beast. It could accommodate 60,000 people. Amphitheatre - It was used for military drill and for staging entertainments for the soldiers. Urban populations also enjoyed a much higher level of entertainment, for example, one calendar tells us that spectacula (shows) filled no less than 176 days of the year!  B. CRAFT & INDUSTRY Minting Mining Amphorae Making Papyrus scrolls Public baths were a striking feature of Roman urban life Economic expansion  The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc. Wheat, wine and olive-oil were traded and consumed in huge quantities, and they came mainly from Spain, the Gallic provinces, North Africa, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Italy, where conditions were best for these crops. Liquids like wine and olive oil were transported in containers called ‘amphorae’.Spanish producers succeeded in capturing markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. This would only have happened if Spanish producers supplied better quality oil at lower prices. The Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called ‘Dressel 20’. The empire included many regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility. Italy, Sicily, Egypt and southern Spain were all among the most densely settled or wealthiest parts of the empire. The best kinds of wine, wheat and olive oil came mainly from numerous estates of these territories. Diversified applications of waterpower around the Mediterranean as well as advances in water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and the gigantic industrial scale on which those mines were worked. The existence of well-organized commercial and banking networks and the widespread use of money are all indications of Roman economy. A strong tradition of Roman law had emerged by the fourth century, and this acted as a brake on even the most fearsome emperors. WORKERS: Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in the ancient world, both in the Mediterranean and in the Near East, and and not even Christianity when it emerged and triumphed as the state religion (in the fourth century) seriously challenged this institution. Under Augustus there were still 3 million slaves in a total Italian population of 7.5 million. With establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to turn either to slave breeding or to cheaper substitutes. The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to the management of labour. Columella, a first-century writer who came from the south of Spain, recommended that landowners should keep a reserve stock of implements and tools, twice as many as they needed, so that production could be continuous, ‘for the loss in slave labour time exceeds the cost of such items’. The position of slave in Roman Empire was miserable as they were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours.  SOCIAL DIVISION (A) Presbyterian (i) The Aristocratic class (ii) Second Class (B) Plebeian (i) The lower Class (ii) Slaves The social structures of the empire as follows: Senators, Equites (horse men and knights), the respectable section of the people (middle class), lower class and finally the slaves. In the early third century when the Senate numbered roughly 1,000, approximately half of all senators still came from Italian families. By the late empire,the senators and the Equites had merged into a unified and expanded aristocracy. The ‘middle’ class now consisted of the considerable mass of persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy. Below them were the vast mass of the lower classes known collectively ashumiliores (literally- ‘Lower’).They comprised a rural labour force. The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land.  There was a great deal of corruption, especially in the judicial system and in the administration of military supplies.

The teachings are: 

1. There is one all powerful God, ‘Allah’ and Muhammad is his Prophet.
2. Idol worship is a sin.
3. All the Muslims are equal and should regard themselves as brothers.
4. A Muslim must not eat Pork.
5. He must not lend money on interest.
6. He must follow certain rules laid down regarding marriage and divorce.
7. He should have faith in the revelations of ‘Quoran’ which is the holy book of the Muslims.

 

<font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">Reasons for the Decline of </font></font><font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">Feudalism</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The reasons for the decline of Feudalism during the Medieval period of the Middle Ages included:</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Crusades and travel during the Middle Ages opened new trade options to England</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">England started to move from land based economy to a money based economy</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Black Death - this reduced the population of England by one third. Labour became a valuable commodity</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Peasants Revolt - Peasants realised their worth and demanded changes. Charters were granted but ignored by nobles</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">More trade saw the growth of more towns</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Peasants moved away from the country into towns they were eventually allowed to buy their freedom</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Land was rented and the rights of lords over labour decreased</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The Feudal Levy was unpopular and as time went by Nobles preferred to pay the King rather than to fight and raise troops</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Armed men were paid a wage and Medieval warfare was financed by taxes and loans</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">Nobles became weaker - the Kings took back their lands and power</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">A centralised government was established</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">The Decline of </font></font><font face="Arial"><font color="#404040">Feudalism - the Standing Armies</font></font> <font face="Arial"><font color="#363636">The decline of feudalism came when rich nobles were allowed to pay for soldiers rather than to fight themselves. Life changed and Mercenaries were hired from all over Europe. The Mercenaries had few allegiances, except to money, and these paid fighting men were feared throughout Europe. The threat of the Mercenaries led on to the employment of professional, trained soldiers - the Standing Armies and ultimately the end of Middle Ages feudalism in England. </font></font>

Settlements had begun to develop in southern Mesopotamia from 5000 BCE. The earliest cities developed from these settlements. Some of the cities developed around temples, some developed as centres of trade, and some developed as imperial cities.

Temple Towns: The earliest known temple was a small shrine made of unbaked bricks. In due course of time, temples became larger. They had several rooms around open courtyards. Temples always had their outer walls going in and out at regular intervals. This feature was absent in ordinary houses.

Amphora, ancient vessel form used as a storage jar and one of the principal vessel shapes in Greek pottery, a two-handled pot with a neck narrower than the body. By placing one hand on the neck of the amphora and the other under its pointed bottom, the person carrying the amphora could control the container, when contents were to be poured into another vessel. The pointed bottoms of the amphorae made them easy to stack in dense layers in the holds of ships.

Rights of women: A woman in Rome had full rights in the property of her father. On her father's death, she could become an independent property owner. A woman had full individual property rights in her husband's property. In other words, a married couple was not regarded as one but two financial entities. Divorce was an easy task and required only a notice either by the husband or by the wife. All these aspects are very modern in the sense that countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq and Congo are still struggling to provide equal rights to women.

Initially, as one might have gathered, the real authority of the republic lay in the hands of the patricians; however, this power could not and would not remain. The plebians, who comprised the majority of the army and did most of the real work, rebelled, going on strike and demanding an equal voice in the government. Out of this struggle came the Conflict of Order, a class “war” that lasted from 494 to 287 BCE. It was a fight that brought about significant change:  a plebeian assembly, the Concilium Plebis. Through this new congress, the plebeians could elect tribunes who, like consuls, served for one year. Their primary function was to safeguard plebeian rights against patrician abuse. Their duties were in many ways similar to that of the consuls; however, they could veto any magistrate decision as it related to the plebeians. Later, to further protect the rights of the plebians, the Twelve Tables also called the Ten plus the Two was enacted as the first record of Roman law - there had never been a written constitution in Rome. By the 4th century BCE all citizens had the right of provocatio populum - the right to appeal the decision of a magistrate, and by 287 BCE the Lex Hotensia stated that laws passed by the Concilium Plebis were binding to all people, even patricians.

Islam is the religion of truth. It is the embodiment of the code of life, which Allah, the Creator and Lord of the Universe, has revealed for the guidance of mankind. Islam is an Arabic word, which denotes submission, surrender and obedience. As a religion, Islam stands for complete submission and obedience to Allah — that is why it is called Islam. The first distinctive characteristic of Islam is its emphasis on correct basic faith, that is faith in Almighty Allah, as the One and Only Being, Who is the Creator, Sustainer and Master of the whole universe, Who alone is worthy of being worshipped and to Whom all of us have to return and account for our deeds done in this life.

Rights of women: A woman in Rome had full rights in the property of her father. On her father's death, she could become an independent property owner. A woman had full individual property rights in her husband's property. In other words, a married couple was not regarded as one but two financial entities. Divorce was an easy task and required only a notice either by the husband or by the wife. All these aspects are very modern in the sense that countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq and Congo are still struggling to provide equal rights to women.

1. For men, the Manusmriti declares, there are seven means of acquiring wealth. These are: Inheritance, finding, purchase, conquest, investment, work and acceptance of gifts from good people.

2. And the six means for women: What was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridal procession or as a token of affection and what she got from her brother, mother or father. In addition, any subsequent gift and whatever her affectionate husband might give her.

3. According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest. Women could not claim a share of these resources.

4. However, women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their marriage as Stridhana (literally, a woman's wealth). This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim on it. At the same time, the Manusmriti warned women against hoarding family property, or even their own valuables, without the husband's permission.

5. We know about some wealthy women such as the Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta. However, cumulative evidence - both epigraphic and textual-suggests that while upper-class women may have been access to resources, land, cattle and money were generally controlled by men.

The first principle of his message is the belief in one God. The message of humanism is inseparably bound together with his message of monotheism. The Quran has numerous verses which refer to Allah and his attributes but it is directed at man and his behaviour. 

The Quran acknowledges pluralism.

There is no compulsion in religion. Allah has created different communities on purpose, to try and test human beings in what has been given to them. It is His will that the people shall live in peace and harmony with each other.

The message of the Quran is one of hope but not of despair. Compassion and mercy are an ever present theme in the Quran. Hopelessness and the lack of trust in His mercy are condemned in the Quran. Even the sinners are assured not to be in despair of His mercy because Allah forgives all sins. Allah says in His Book: “My mercy encompasses all things.”

Mercy is also a quality of His Prophet, for we are told in the Quran that “to the Believers is he most kind and merciful”. Even a believer should aspire for, if not possess, mercy. The believers are those who are “compassionate amongst each other”, and “exhort one another to mercy”. Man is required to believe in Allah’s mercy and also practise it himself.

Any person who wishes to become a Muslim should recognize that he or she will get all these benefits and much more. However, he or she should realize that they have to earn them by practicing the teachings of Islam.
The following items are some of the benefits to be earned and enjoyed by those who wish to become Muslim:

1. As far as the Creator (whose proper name is Allah) is concerned, you will be able to identify Him and get to know Him, His role and your relationship to His names, you will be able to communicate with Him any time, 24 hours a day, throughout the whole year. As a result of this category, you will be able to know your origin, your roots and the wisdom as to why you are on this planet. You will be able to have good answers to the questions why, how, when, where, what and other philosophical questions.
2. As a result of the first benefit, your loyalty, allegiance, and obedience will be to the Creator himself. You will transcend yourself from all types of allegiance for this world. This means that if there is a conflict of interest between your boss, your job, your government, your system or any worldly relationship with the Creator, you will undoubtedly put your trust in Allah, the Creator of the universe. You will follow Him before you follow anyone else.
3. As a result of the second benefit, you will be able to acquire peace, harmony, tranquility and happiness within yourself, with your family, with people of the world, with the environment and with the universe. One has to remember that the source of peace is Allah, and one of his beautiful names is that He is The Peace.
4. As an endorsement to the third benefit, you will get rid of the extra electrostatic charges from your brain and the central nervous system by performing the daily Salah (prayer). Through Salah, you are to prostrate by putting your forehead to the floor; and as such are grounding yourself, and you are discharging these extra charges into the ground. As a result of this act, you will get rid of many of the neurological diseases from your body.
5. As a result of the fourth benefit, you will acquire a pleasant personality. You will be friendly and amicable. You would not need to drink alcohol, to use drugs or to get involved in vulgarity or immorality.
6. Through the experience of fasting in Islam, you will be able to have self-control, self-restraint, self-discipline, self-education, self-evaluation, and self-obedience to Allah the Creator. You undoubtedly will be able to improve health, personality, character, and behavior.
7. As a result of the sixth benefit, you will be able to control your lusts, selfishness, desires, greed, ego, and conceitedness.
8. Another side reaction of the sixth and seventh benefits is that you will be generous and hospitable; you will try to purify yourself and your mistakes by sharing your happiness and your wealth with those who are less fortunate than you. Your rewards will manifold, compounded daily until the Day of Judgment.
9. By performing pilgrimage to Makkah, you will transcend yourself from being nationalistic, sectarian, or denominational into being universal. You will be part and an essential constituent of the rainbow of Islam. You will be also part of the brotherhood of Islam with those who already submitted themselves to the Creator. At the same time, you will get rid of any inferiority or superiority complexes. You will also find yourself in synchrony and harmony with all the prophets and messengers of Allah since the creation of Adam and Eve until the last final messenger to mankind, prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him). While in Makkah, you will be able to visit the places of revelation of the Qu`ran as well as the places visited by Prophet Abraham and members of his family such as Hagar and Ishmael .(peace be upon them) You will visit the place where the first astronauts, Adam and Eve landed on earth.
10. In becoming a Muslim, you will do your best to stop all types of exploitations in all their forms: economic, biological, mental, spiritual, psychological, political, etc. You will also work to liberate people and give them freedom of worship, freedom of speech, and freedom of expression. You will be a leader and help lead people to peace, tranquility and happiness.
11. In accepting Islam, you will help to reduce all types of social illnesses in the society: juvenile delinquency, child abuse, domestic abuse, incest, homosexuality, sexual promiscuity, premarital relationships, extramarital relationships, and other vices.
12. As a result of the eleventh benefit, you will reduce and eliminate venereal diseases, AIDS, and other diseases of similar nature in the society.
13. Finally, when you die, you will die at peace. You will have a happy life in the grave and later, eternal happiness. Angels at the time of death will comfort you. They will also show you your place in paradise. On the Day of Judgment, you will be able to see and meet all the prophets and messengers of God to mankind including Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad (peace be upon them). You will be able to see and meet any and all of your friends and relatives. You will live an eternal life of bliss in paradise.

A n s w e r:
T e a c h i n g s of Islam is as follow:

• God, i.e. Allah is one. He is omnipresent and omnipotent.
• People should lead a simple life.