The black stone stele containing the Code of Hammurabi was carved from a single, four-ton slab of diorite, a durable but incredibly difficult stone for carving.

At its top is a two-and-a-half-foot relief carving of a standing Hammurabi receiving the law—symbolized by a measuring rod and tape—from the seated Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. The rest of the seven-foot-five-inch monument is covered with columns of chiseled cuneiform script.

The text, compiled at the end of Hammurabi’s reign, is less a proclamation of principles than a collection of legal precedents, set between prose celebrating Hammurabi’s just and pious rule. Hammurabi’s Code provides some of the earliest examples of the doctrine of “lex talionis,” or the laws of retribution, sometimes better known as “an eye for an eye.”

By 2600 BCE,the letters became cuneiform, and the language was Sumerian. Writing was now used not only for keeping records,but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers,narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary laws of the land.

The three orders are three social categories: Christian priests, landowning nobles and peasants.The term ‘feudalism’ has been used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era.

The Three order

First Order

Priests (The Clergy)

– The Catholic Church

– Europe guided by bishops and clerics.

– Pope lived in Rome

– Women could not be become priests

– Monks – The church and Society

Second Order

Nobles

– Vassals of the king

– They enjoyed a privileged status

– Absolute control over property

– Could raise troops

– Even coin his own money

Third Order

– Peasants

– Free peasants and serfs

– Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord.

Humanism: Humanism was one of the movements that started in Italy in fourteenth century. Italian universities were centres of legal studies. Francesco Petrarch is known as ‘Father of Humanism’. He suggested a shift from the study of law to the ancient Roman culture and texts. The term ‘humanism’ was first used by Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero. Humanists thought that they were restoring ‘true civilisation’ after centuries of darkness, for they believed that a ‘Dark Age’ had set in after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The period from the fifth to fourteenth centuries was the Middle Ages, and the Modern Age started from fifteenth century.

Factors which led to the beginning of Industrial Revolution in England were:

• The beginning of Renaissance and Reformation led to awakening among the people in Europe. Inventions made by the British scientists brought a revolution in the industries of Great Britain. Invention of the “Spinning Jenny’ by James Hargreaves in 1769 made the speed of spinning faster. Invention of ‘Water Frame’ by Richard Arkwright produced stronger and harder yarn than that of the Spinning Jenny and ushered in the factory system.
• England had a large colonial empire. She procured raw materials from colonies at cheaper rates for her industries. India was one of the countries from where she purchased raw materials like cotton at extremely cheap rates. She not only brought raw materials at cheap rates but also sold her manufactured goods in the colonial markets. Thus availability of markets led to the flourishing of industries in England.
• Several raw materials like iron and coal were available in England. Further, she was a supreme naval power. She was able to procure raw materials from other parts of the world by ships. Moderate climate of England helped in the development of textile industries.
• As England began to reap huge benefits from the international trade, industries in England began to expand bringing about increase in production of goods and materials.  Napoleonic Wars had damaged the trade and industry of the continental countries. But since these wars were never fought in Britain, the long period of peace prevailed which led to the development of industrial production in England.
• The decline of feudalism resulted in large number of unemployed peasants. They came to cities in search of jobs and thus labourers were easily available for factories in England.
• The use of charcoal and tar enabled the construction of roads in many European countries. In 1804, locomotive engine was manufactured by George Stephenson. This improved transport system in England.
• The invention of steam engine by James Watt led to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. In 1813, the railways ran with the help of steam.
• Many protestant artisans of Spain and France migrated to England for the fear of religious persecution in their own countries. The English government provided them with shelter and monetary help. Their skills helped in the development of industries in England.

The factors responsible for the decline of the Roman Civilization are as followings :

1. Wars and Luxurious Life : Repeated wars and conquests bent and broke the back of democracy. The luxurious and easeful way of living demoralised the ruling class.

2. Slave Revolts : The number of slaves had out numbered the free men. They grew rebellious and could not be quelled by the ruling class.

3. The Weakness of Emperors : The Roman emperors being incompetent and weak could not face the invaders.

4. Spread of Christianity : The Christian religion gave meassage of love and equality. It weakened the rule of emperors since it created rebellions feeling among the slaves.

5. Raids and invasions : Invaders and raiders shattered the Roman Civilization.

The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. The crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops in 235, initiating a 50-year period during which there were at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, who assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire. The same number of men became accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor during this period and so became legitimate emperors.

Education in the Roman empire contributed to the social mobility that characterized the earlier period of Imperial history known as the Principate.

Education was available only for those who could pay for it, since there was no state- supported system of schools with public funding.

A higher rate of literacy is indicated among military personnel than among the general population. Educated women were not unusual, and there was an expectation that upper-class girls would at least attend primary school, probably in the same classes as boys. Only an elite few, regardless of gender, went on to receive secondary education.

Modest number of slaves were educated and they played a key role in promoting education and the culture of literacy. Teachers, scribes, and secretaries were likely to be slaves. The education of slaves was not discouraged, and slave-children might attend classes with the children of their masters. Book stores were already well-established in Rome by the beginning of the Imperial period, and are found also in urban centers of the provinces.

Books were expensive, but by the later period, popular genres of literature indicated reading for pleasure among non-elites. Emperor sponsored libraries that were to some extent public, and a wealthy individual might donate a library for a community, or accumulate impressive private collections to which in-house scholars might be attached. Literacy is thought to have declined in late antiquity during the transition away from the classical institutions and practices that supported it.

Mesopotamian temples have played a significant role in the history of Mesopotamia. They constructed temples and dedicated them to their different gods and goddesses. Their temples were dedicated to Nanna, Anu, Enki and Inanna. Besides these four deities, each town had its own deity who was considered to be the protector of the respective town.

Temples of early Mesopotamia were comparatively smaller in size. They were also made of unbaked bricks. With the passage of time, the temple began to take new shape. Their importance as well as size began to increase. They used to build their temples on the hill tops because they believed that God (deities) dwell on the hill-top. These temples were made of baked bricks.

One of the peculiar features of these temples was that their outer walls had inward and outward bend at regular intervals. The temple had a courtyard and there were several rooms around it. The image of the deity was placed in the main room. Some rooms served as dwelling places for priests and other rooms were meant to stay for the pilgrims.

Increasing Activities of the Temples:

• Temples served as center of imparting education, where the priests used to serve as teachers.
• Land attached to temples was also used for industrial purposes.
• Temples were also engaged in sales and purchases of goods and also used to provide advance loans to the traders and charge interest thereon.
• The people offered grains, curd, dates, etc. to serve their deities. They also sacrificed ox, sheep, goat, etc. to offer their blessings.
• Temples also served as the centers for entertainment and provided a common platform for the people to meet each other and get a new boost.

The developments and significance:

1. Timeline : For several million years, humans lived by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. Then, between 10,000 and 4,500 years ago, people in different parts of the world learnt to domesticate certain plants and animals. This led to the development of farming and pastoralism as a way of life. The shift from foraging to farming was a major turning point in human history.

2. The last ice age came to an end about 13,000 years ago and with that warmer, wetter conditions prevailed. As a result, conditions were favourable for the growth of grasses such as wild barley and wheat. At the same time, as open forests and grasslands expanded, the population of certain animal species such as wild sheep, goat, cattle, pig and donkey increased.

What we find is that human societies began to gradually prefer areas that had an abundance of wild grasses and animals. Now relatively large, permanent communities occupied such areas for most parts of the year.

With some areas being clearly preferred, a pressure may have built up to increase the food supply. This may have triggered the process of domestication of certain plants and animals. It is likely that a combination of factors which included climatic change, population pressure, a greater reliance on and knowledge of a few species of plants (such as wheat, barley, rice and millet) and animals (such as sheep, goat, cattle, donkey and pig) played a role in this transformation.

3. One such area where farming and pastoralism began around 10,000 years ago was the Fertile Crescent, extending from the Mediterranean coast to the Zagros mountains in Iran.

With the introduction of agriculture, more people began to stay in one place for even longer periods than they had done before.

Thus permanent houses began to be built of mud, mud bricks and even stone. These are some of the earliest villages known to archaeologists.

4. Farming and pastoralism led to the introduction of many other changes such as the making of pots in which to  store  graingand other produce, and to cook food.

Besides, new kinds of stone tools came into use. Other new tools such as the plough were used in agriculture. Gradually, people became familiar with metals such as copper and tin. The wheel, important for both pot making and transportation, came into use.

5. About 5,000 years ago, even larger concentrations of people began to live together in cities.

Answer:
Turks were the nomadic tribes of central Asia. They were skilled warriors and horse riders. They joined Abbasid, Samand and Buyid administration as slaves and soldiers. They were raised to the high position on account of their loyalty and military skill.

• When an invention is created for a certain job, e.g. headphones, a number of factors occur. First of all, the invention focuses on this particular area or task. Telephones had attracted attention to communication and therefore more inventions were thought of. In addition, every invention has its own limitations/  People are also inventing new things when attempting to solve these limitations.
• For example ,the invention of "Spinning Jenny" created a necessity to accelerate weaving of cloth which had facilitated the invention of a "loom", which then had increased the demand for raw cotton, which prompted the invention of cotton gin  that created the "demand for "stronger iron" to make bigger "stronger machines", enhancements in "smelting metal" led to the invention of steel.

a. Ur was an important city of Mesopotamia civilization.
b. The city was well known was for its urban planning, with traders, merchants residing in one side of he side.
c. The city of Ur was characterised by long , widening lanes and streets.
d. The houses in the city was also well planned, with open courtyard, chapels, kitchen , two living rooms, the houses were all adjoining,however every house had inner courtyards.
e.The Ur was known for its water and flood control system, which was well in place.
f. There has been enough evidence to prove that Ur was he thriving urban centre and a major port

The royal capital of Mari flourished after 2000 BCE. Mari is situated much further upstream on the Euphrates; rather than on the fertile southern plain. Some communities in the kingdom of Mari had both farmers and pastoralists. Most of its territory was used for pasturing sheep and goats. Exchange of materials was the norm between herders and farmers. But access or denial of access to water resources often led to conflict between herders and farmers. Nomadic communities of the western desert often came to the prosperous agricultural heartland. Some of them also worked as harvest laborers or hired soldiers. Some of them became prosperous and settled down. A few gained power to establish their own rule. Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians and Aramaeans were examples of such herders.

Uruk, Akkad, Babylon, Assur, Persepolis, Nineveh and Nimrud are major cities developed in Mesopotamia which is a historical part of Western Asia and it was under the control of Parthian Empire. It was also become a battleground between Parthians and Romans. Civilization was formed in the bank of Euphrates and Tigres River which is now a Kuwait and Iraq. During their civilization Uruk was the first city in the world history where the population was around 80,000 and was largest city during 2900 BC.