The gender differences in ancient Roman society through historical records, paintings, statues and writings found during archaeological excavations.

1. Girls get married much earlier than man. They get married as early as the age 12.

2. The father gets the custody of children and not the mother in case of divorce.

3. Education was important to both male and female but it was limited in women.

4. Women don't have direct political power like men.

5. Women have limited public life. They are discouraged to speak in public gatherings.

The extinct ancient human Homo erectus is a species of firsts. It was the first of our relatives to have human-like body proportions, with shorter arms and longer legs relative to its torso. It was also the first known hominin to migrate out of Africa, and possibly the first to cook food. Homo erectus is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago, and its specimens are among the first recognisable members of the genus Homo.

In the later fifth and sixth centuries, the Southern Asia Minor (Turkey), Syria and Palestine became major exporters of wine and olive oil.

The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main players in the political history of the empire.

Rabia was the first woman Sufi saint. She was deeply religious. Her teachings had a deep impact on the heart and mind of the people.

The founder of Islam was Prophet Muhammad. 

Transhumanism is a class of philosophies of life that seek the continuation and acceleration of the evolution of intelligent life beyond its currently human form and human limitations by means of science and technology, guided by life-promoting principles and values.

The three orders are three social categories: Christian priests, landowning nobles and peasants. The term 'feudalism' has been used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era. Medieval society in Europe was divided into three orders (groups of people): those who work, those who fight, and those who pray. The people who work consisted of serfs and other peasants who lived on their lord's manor. Serfs were peasants who were owned by a lord.

The black stone stele containing the Code of Hammurabi was carved from a single, four-ton slab of diorite, a durable but incredibly difficult stone for carving.

At its top is a two-and-a-half-foot relief carving of a standing Hammurabi receiving the law—symbolized by a measuring rod and tape—from the seated Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. The rest of the seven-foot-five-inch monument is covered with columns of chiseled cuneiform script.

The text, compiled at the end of Hammurabi’s reign, is less a proclamation of principles than a collection of legal precedents, set between prose celebrating Hammurabi’s just and pious rule. Hammurabi’s Code provides some of the earliest examples of the doctrine of “lex talionis,” or the laws of retribution, sometimes better known as “an eye for an eye.”

By 2600 BCE,the letters became cuneiform, and the language was Sumerian. Writing was now used not only for keeping records,but also for making dictionaries, giving legal validity to land transfers,narrating the deeds of kings, and announcing the changes a king had made in the customary laws of the land.

The three orders are three social categories: Christian priests, landowning nobles and peasants.The term ‘feudalism’ has been used by historians to describe the economic, legal, political and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era.

The Three order

First Order

Priests (The Clergy)

– The Catholic Church

– Europe guided by bishops and clerics.

– Pope lived in Rome

– Women could not be become priests

– Monks – The church and Society

Second Order

Nobles

– Vassals of the king

– They enjoyed a privileged status

– Absolute control over property

– Could raise troops

– Even coin his own money

Third Order

– Peasants

– Free peasants and serfs

– Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord.

Humanism: Humanism was one of the movements that started in Italy in fourteenth century. Italian universities were centres of legal studies. Francesco Petrarch is known as ‘Father of Humanism’. He suggested a shift from the study of law to the ancient Roman culture and texts. The term ‘humanism’ was first used by Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero. Humanists thought that they were restoring ‘true civilisation’ after centuries of darkness, for they believed that a ‘Dark Age’ had set in after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The period from the fifth to fourteenth centuries was the Middle Ages, and the Modern Age started from fifteenth century.

Factors which led to the beginning of Industrial Revolution in England were:

• The beginning of Renaissance and Reformation led to awakening among the people in Europe. Inventions made by the British scientists brought a revolution in the industries of Great Britain. Invention of the “Spinning Jenny’ by James Hargreaves in 1769 made the speed of spinning faster. Invention of ‘Water Frame’ by Richard Arkwright produced stronger and harder yarn than that of the Spinning Jenny and ushered in the factory system.
• England had a large colonial empire. She procured raw materials from colonies at cheaper rates for her industries. India was one of the countries from where she purchased raw materials like cotton at extremely cheap rates. She not only brought raw materials at cheap rates but also sold her manufactured goods in the colonial markets. Thus availability of markets led to the flourishing of industries in England.
• Several raw materials like iron and coal were available in England. Further, she was a supreme naval power. She was able to procure raw materials from other parts of the world by ships. Moderate climate of England helped in the development of textile industries.
• As England began to reap huge benefits from the international trade, industries in England began to expand bringing about increase in production of goods and materials.  Napoleonic Wars had damaged the trade and industry of the continental countries. But since these wars were never fought in Britain, the long period of peace prevailed which led to the development of industrial production in England.
• The decline of feudalism resulted in large number of unemployed peasants. They came to cities in search of jobs and thus labourers were easily available for factories in England.
• The use of charcoal and tar enabled the construction of roads in many European countries. In 1804, locomotive engine was manufactured by George Stephenson. This improved transport system in England.
• The invention of steam engine by James Watt led to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. In 1813, the railways ran with the help of steam.
• Many protestant artisans of Spain and France migrated to England for the fear of religious persecution in their own countries. The English government provided them with shelter and monetary help. Their skills helped in the development of industries in England.

The factors responsible for the decline of the Roman Civilization are as followings :

1. Wars and Luxurious Life : Repeated wars and conquests bent and broke the back of democracy. The luxurious and easeful way of living demoralised the ruling class.

2. Slave Revolts : The number of slaves had out numbered the free men. They grew rebellious and could not be quelled by the ruling class.

3. The Weakness of Emperors : The Roman emperors being incompetent and weak could not face the invaders.

4. Spread of Christianity : The Christian religion gave meassage of love and equality. It weakened the rule of emperors since it created rebellions feeling among the slaves.

5. Raids and invasions : Invaders and raiders shattered the Roman Civilization.

The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. The crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops in 235, initiating a 50-year period during which there were at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, who assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire. The same number of men became accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor during this period and so became legitimate emperors.