• Volcanic rocks are fine grained whereas plutonic rocks tend to be coarse grained
• Volcanic rocks form above the surface while plutonic rocks form beneath the surface.
• Volcanic rocks form rapidly in geological terms, in a few days at the most, whereas plutonic rocks can take thousands to millions of years to form because it takes much longer for rock beneath the surface to cool down than rock exposed to the atmosphere.

1.Mohorovicic discontinuity marks the boundary between the upper mantle and the crust while the Gutenberg discontinuity marks the boundary between the lower mantle and outer core.
2.The Gutenberg discontinuity is located about 2900 km below the Earth surface whereas the Mohorovicic discontinuity is 8 km below the ocean floor and 30 to 50 km beneath typical continents.
3.Andriza Mohorovicic discovered the Mohorovicic discontinuity whereas Beno Gutenberg discovered the Gutenberg discontinuity.

• The history of geographical thought as mother branch of geography is included universally in its curricula.

• All the social science disciplines, viz. sociology, political science, economics and demography study different aspects of social reality.

• Geography and Civics: The core concern of political science is territory, people and sovereignty while political geography is also interested in the study of the state as a spatial unit as well as people and their political behaviour.

• Geography and Economics: Economics deals with basic attributes of the economy such as production, distribution, exchange and consumption are part of economic geography.

All the branches of physical geography, have connection with natural sciences.

• The traditional physical geography is linked with geology, meteorology, hydrology and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, climatology, oceanography and soil geography respectively have very close link with the natural sciences as these derive their data from these sciences.

• Bio-Geography is closely related to botany, zoology as well as ecology as human beings are located in different locational niche.

• The cartographic and quantitative techniques require sufficient proficiency in mathematics, statistics and econometrics.

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of life forms, past and present, and the causes of such distributions. The study of animal (zoogeography) and plant (phytogeography) distributions received much attention in the 19^th century.

Physical geography includes study of Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere & Biosphere- each element is very important for human beings.
Landforms provide base for agriculture, industries, transport and communication, and settlements. Mountains provide water to rivers, forests-center for tourist spots.
Climate influences on the cropping pattern, livestock, food and clothes of the people.
limate and precipitation influence the type of forests. Oceans provide food, water transport, and influence the climate; they are the source of hydrological cycle. (i) Geomorphology is devoted to the study of land forms, their evolution and related processes.
(ii) Climatology encompasses the study of structure of atmosphere and elements of weather and climates and climatic types and regions.
(iii) Hydrology studies the realm of water over the surface of the earth including oceans, lakes, rivers and other water bodies and its effect on different life forms including human life and their activities.
(iv) Soil Geography is devoted to study the processes of soil formation, soil types, their fertility status, distribution and use

It is a discipline of synthesis; it includes spatial and temporal synthesis.
Its approach is holistic in nature. it recognizes the fact that the world is a system of interdependence. The present world is a global village. The efficient transport and communication helped the world to become unified village. The audiovisual media helped the data to be enriched. Technology provided better chances of monitoring natural phenomena as well as the economic and social parameters. Geography as an integrating discipline has interface with numerous natural and social sciences.

LITHOSPHERE :

The lithosphere is the crust and upper mantle of a planet, including all the solid matter from moutains to valleys to tectonic plates underneath. In Earth the lithospheric mantle is brittle and hard, almost like the crust, though chemically distinct.

BIOSPHERE :

The biosphere is the life and ecology of a planet. It is not a distinct area, but rather a collection of areas, including parts of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere, where organisms live and dead organic matter rests.

In systematic geography a phenomenon is studied world over s a whole and then the identification of typologies or spatial patterns is done.We study about Physical geography and Human geography in systematic approach.

Regional geography is the study of  geographical factors of an area.It means one can start with a region ,a state,or a river basins and then study it from different approaches.

The main sub branches of Regional geography are:1.Regional studies,2.Regional Analysis, 3. Regional development,4. Regional planning.

Areal differentiation represents one of the classic philosophical approaches to geographic inquiry. A central concept of areal differentiation is that the surface of the earth may be divided into regions, which may be distinguished and categorised using various spatial criteria. Thus, areal differentiation provides the theoretical foundation for regional geography, by conceptualising space as consisting of identifiable units that may be distinguished from one another on the basis of a set of phenomena or criteria. When there is similarity and dissimilarity among the physical and cultural features on the earth surface, it is called aerial differentiation.

Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes and explains the spatial aspects of interactions between human individuals or societies and their natural environment, these interactions being called coupled human–environment system

India is positioned on the Indian subcontinent in south-central Asia, and is located in both the eastern and northern hemispheres. India bordered by the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Mannar, Indian Ocean, and the countries of Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Burma (Myanmar).

LATITUDE & LONGITUDE:

Latitude/Longitude (Absolute Locations) 

New Delhi: (capital city) 28° 38' N, 77° 13' E 

Kochi: 9° 55' N, 76° 16' E 

Kolkata: 22° 34' N, 88° 21' E 

Mumbai: 19° 4' N, 72° 52' E 

Srinagar: 34° 5' N, 74° 47' E.

The geographical phenomenal both physical and human are not static, they are highly dynamic because of the inter-active processes between ever hanging earth and ever-active and untiring human beings.

Since geography is relates to studying the Earth, and the Earth is continually changing. Nothing on Earth remains in a static position. The only constant on the Earth is change. The rate of things change differs from place to place.

The geographical phenomena, both human and physical, are highly dynamic. They change gradually because of the inter-active processes between ever hanging earth and ever-active and untiring human beings. There subsist changes over the earth’s surface in its physical as well as human and cultural environs.

Many phenomena are similar and several are dissimilar. It is, thus, logical to distinguish geography as the study of a real differentiation. Therefore, geography is supposed to study those phenomena that differ over space. Geographers study the changes/variations/adaptations in the phenomena over the surface of the earth as well as study the relations with the other factors that cause these changes.

For instance, cropping patterns vary from area to area; however this variation in cropping pattern, as a phenomenon, is associated with changes in climates, soils, market demands, and ability of a farmer to invest and technological inputs available to them. Therefore, the concern of geography is to discover the causal connection between any 2 phenomena or between more than one phenomena.

Primitive human societies were directly reliant on their immediate environs. Geography, therefore, is connected with the study of Human and Nature inter-actions as a unified whole. ‘Human is an essential part of ‘nature’ and ‘nature’ has the human imprints. ‘Nature’ has impacted different facets of human life. Its imprints is seen on clothing, food, occupation, and shelter. Human beings have gradually accepted nature by way of adaptation and modification.

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation on the material at the Earth’s surface within the bodies of water. 
Sedimentation is the combined name for all the processes that cause organic and mineral particles to get settle. The particle that helps in forming the sedimentary rock is called sediment. This sediment is formed with the help of erosion and weathering from the source area and which is then transported to the deposition place by the wind, water, ice and glaciers which are agents of denudation.
The sedimentary rocks are classified into three different types: Organic, Clastic and Chemical Sedimentary Rocks.
 

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

This rock type mainly comprises of coal and limestones which is formed due to accumulation and deposition of dead plants and animals in rock layers.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

This type of rock is formed when rock layers are formed due to the mechanical weathering of different rock types.

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

This rock type is formed when there is a chemical reaction between minerals, present in rock forms cools down as precipitate and converts to rock form over a period of time.

Geography is an integrated discipline.
1. Geography and History: The geographical factors have modified the course of history in different parts of the world. Every geographical phenomenon undergoes change through time and can be explained temporarily. The changes in landforms, climate, vegetation, economic activities, occupations and cultural developments have followed a definite historical course.

2.Geography and Civics: The core concern of political science is territory, people and sovereignty while political geography is also interested in the study of the state as a spatial unit as well as people and their political behaviour.

3. Geography and Economics: Economics deals with basic attributes of the economy such as production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each of these attributes also has spatial aspects and here comes the role of economic geography to study the spatial aspects of production, distribution, exchange and consumption.