Mineral cycles include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition. Cycling of mineral nutrients like K is also required to cover the demand for growth of apical root zones and to smooth out fluctuations that occur spatially and with time in the external nutient supply of soil‐grown plants.

Geography as an integrated discipline because Geography is all about nature and environment. It covers whole physical areas in the planet, and holistic nature.

Geography connects people with nature or environment. People can know about general knowledges from Geography. It connects people with the world. Earth, sky, lands you can know anything about world from Geography.

Valley of Flowers National Park is an Indian national park, located in North Chamoli and Pithoragarh, in the state of Uttarakhand and is known for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers and the variety of flora.

Seismology is the study of earthquakes.

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves. ... Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion.

Sea-floor spreading — In the early 1960s, Princeton geologist Harry Hess proposed the hypothesis of sea-floor spreading, in which basaltic magma from the mantle rises to create new ocean floor at mid-ocean ridges. On each side of the ridge, sea floor moves from the ridge towards the deep-sea trenches, where it is subducted and recycled back into the mantle . A test of the hypothesis of sea-floor spreading was provided by studies of the Earth's magnetism.

The plate movements are classified into three types:
(i) Some plates come towards each other and form convergent boundaries.
(ii) Some plates move away from each other and form divergent boundary.
(iii) At times, they may also move horizontally past each other and form transform boundary.
When two plates come together, they are known as convergent plates. They are also known as constructive plates. When two plates move far away from each other, they are known as divergent plates. When two plates coming towards each other collide or burst pass, they are known as transform plate. The movement of plates causes volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, formation of mountains, etc.

It is related to the attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters. Wegener believed that these forces would become effective when applied over many million years.

The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation of the earth. The earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at the equator. This bulge is due to the rotation of the earth.

The rocks equidistant on either sides of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable similarities in terms of period of formation, chemical compositions and magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity and are the youngest. The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the crest.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges:

i. A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression.

ii. The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s surface.

iii. Iceland, a part of the mid - Atlantic Ridge, is an example.

The earth’s lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates and many minor plates. The lithosphere is a rigid outermost shell of earth and is broken up into tectonic plates. When these plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of boundary like convergent, divergent, or transform.

Volcanic activity, earthquakes, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

1. It is a discipline of synthesis; it includes spatial and temporal synthesis.
2. Its approach is holistic in nature. it recognizes the fact that the world is a system of interdependence. The present world is a global village.
3. The efficient transport and communication helped the world to become unified village. The audiovisual media helped the data to be enriched.
4. Technology provided better chances of monitoring natural phenomena as well as the economic and social parameters.
5. Geography as an integrating discipline has interface with numerous natural and social sciences.

Metamorphic rocks are formed when rock changes over a period of time due to a lot of physical changes like pressure, heat and different chemical activity. When sedimentary rocks or igneous rocks go through the physical process such as pressure exposure, heat changes, and tectonic plate movement at plate edges. This rock changes occur when these rocks are exposed to an environment.

Characteristics of Metamorphic Rock

• Cataclastic metamorphism occurs along with the tectonic plate faults where the rocks get rubbed with each other which results in the grain size reduction.

• Transformation of these rocks are classified as one which could not form non foliated rock and is of low grade.

• Circulation of rock results in huge number of mineral water chemical reactions which results in different kinds of precious metals and stones.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) store, analyze, and visualize data for geographic positions on Earth’s surface. GIS is a computer-based tool that examines spatial relationships, patterns, and trends. By connecting geography with data, GIS better understands data using a geographic context.

The 4 main ideas of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are:

• Create geographic data.
• Manage it in a database.
• Analyze and find patterns.
• Visualize it on a map.

Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form". ... Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss, slate, marble, schist, and quartzite. Sedimentary rocks, formed from the products of weathering by cementation or precipitation on the Earth's surface. Metamorphic rocks, formed by temperature and pressure changes inside the Earth. All three types of rock make up the Earth's lithosphere, the outermost layer. ... Quick cooling lavas are called volcanic rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks that are changed because of heat or pressure. They are not made from molten rock – rocks that do melt form igneous rocks instead. Earth movements can cause rocks to be deeply buried or squeezed. As a result, the rocks are heated and put under great pressure. Rock that was once one form of rock but has changed to another under the influence of heat, pressure, or some other agent without passing through a liquid phase. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous or sedimentary rocks, but have been changed (metamorphosed) as a result of intense heat and/or pressure within the Earth's crust. They are crystalline and often have a “squashed” (foliated or banded) texture.

The plate movements are classified into three types:
(i) Some plates come towards each other and form convergent boundaries.
(ii) Some plates move away from each other and form divergent boundary.
(iii) At times, they may also move horizontally past each other and form transform boundary.
When two plates come together, they are known as convergent plates. They are also known as constructive plates. When two plates move far away from each other, they are known as divergent plates. When two plates coming towards each other collide or burst pass, they are known as transform plate. The movement of plates causes volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, formation of mountains, etc.

In physics Coriolis effect is a deflection of moving objects when they are viewed in a rotating reference frame In a reference frame with clockwise rotation, the deflection is to the left of the motion of the object; in one with counter-clockwise rotation, the deflection is to the right.

The Coriolis effect is the one that makes low pressures rotate anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern. At the equator, the forces cancel each other out. That's why the direction of rotation changes between the two hemispheres.

The Coriolis effect is greatest at the poles and zero at the equator because of the earth's spherical shape. If the surface of the rotating object is flatter, the Coriolis effect will be noticed more.

Developed from the 1950s through the 1970s, plate tectonics is the modern version of continental drift, a theory first proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Wegener didn't have an explanation for how continents could move around the planet, but researchers do now.

The Circum-Pacific Belt, also referred to as The Ring of Fire, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.

• India is a southward extension of the Asian continent. The trans Indian Ocean routes which connect the countries of Europe in the west and the countries of East Asia provide a strategic central location to India.
• The Deccan Peninsular protrudes into the Indian Ocean, thus helping India to establish close contact with west Asia, Africa and Europe from the Western coast and with Southeast Asia and East Asia from the Eastern coast.
• No other country has a long coastline on the Indian Ocean as India has and indeed, it is India’s eminent position in the Indian Ocean which justifies the naming of an Ocean after it.

The name ‘India’ was originated from Indus valley civilization.

Huns, Egyptians, Persians, and other countrymen used to enter India by crossing Indus river. The word Hindu originated from Sindhu. People from these countries used to pronounce S as H and so they called Sindhu as Hindu.

Egyptians and Romans used to call Indus as Sindhu valley and eastern part of it as India.