Anterior pituitary

• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Luteinising hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

Posterior pituitary

• Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin

Chloroplast, peroxisome and mitochondria are three cellular organelles involved in photorespiration.
Various steps of photorespiratory pathway:
(a) In presence of high Oz, RuBP carboxylase acts as oxygenase and results in formation of 3PGA (Phosphoglyeric acid) and 2-phosphoglycolate, 2-phosphoglycolate loses PO4 group to make glycolate.
(b) Synthesized glycolate in chloroplast enters into peroxisomes.

© The glycolate is oxidised into glyoxylate and H2O2 by oxidase enzyme.
(d) Glyoxylate is changed into glycine (amino acid) by glutamate glyoxylate transaminase (enzyme).
(e) Two molecules of glycine form serine and one mol. of CO2 in mitochondria but no ATP and NADPH are formed.
(f) Finally serine passes into mitochondria and is changed into carbohydrate (3 carbon) and Phosphoglycolate (2 carbon).
(g) Soon glycolate is formed of phosphoglycolate. In peroxisomes, glycolate soon changes into glycine and glycine into serine and CO2, without production of assimilatory powers (ATP and NADPH2).

Mitochondria are organs of special importance. These organelles are absolute requirements to sustain the physiological activities of the cells.
1. They are typically sausage shaped or cylindrical shaped.
2. Each mitochondrion is a double membrane - bound structure with the outer membrane and the inner membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two compartments, I.e., the outer compartment (perimitochindrial space) and the inner compartment matrix).
3. They are present in almost all the cells of the body except in Red Blood Cells.
4. They are freely floating in the cytoplasm and and stay in the regions of high energy requirement.
5. Mitochondria are self replicable i.e. they can multiply on their own without the requirement of cell to divide.
This characteristic feature helps replacement of old, worn out and damaged mitochondria with new and healthy mitochondria.
6. Mitochondria have their own genetic material as single stranded DNA.
7. The mitochondria have many enzyme complex which in series help in formation of energy i.e. adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP).

In prokaryotes, which lack a nucleus, cytoplasm simply means everything found inside the plasma membrane. One major component of the cytoplasm in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the gel-like cytosol, a water-based solution that contains ions, small molecules, and macromolecules. Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane, but they have no internal membrane-bound organelles within their cytoplasm. The absence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles differentiates prokaryotes from another class of organisms called eukaryotes.

van Niel, C. B. Cornelis Bernardus van Niel was a Dutch microbiologist whose experiments with bacteria helped explain how photosynthesis occurs in plants. Sulfur bacteria particularly interested van Niel, because there was a controversy in the early 1900s concerning the bacteria. 

Jan Baptista van Helmont (1580-1644) partially discovered the process of photosynthesis. He grew a willow tree in a weighed amount of soil. ... As the weight of the soil had hardly changed, van Helmont concluded that plant growth cannot only be due to minerals from the soil. Photosynthesis was partially discovered in the 1600's by Jan Baptista van Helmont, a Belgian chemist, physiologist and physician.

Functions of cerebellum:

(i) Cerebellum helps in maintaining the posture and equilibrium of our body.

(ii) It enables us to make precise and accurate movements.

The DNA double helix has two types of bonds, covalent and hydrogen. Covalent bonds exist within each linear strand and strongly bond bases, sugars, and phosphate groups (both within each component and between components). The nucleotides in a strand of DNA are held together by phosphodiester bonds (a specific type of covalent bond). The two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds that form between the nitrogenous bases in one strand and the nitrogenous bases in the other strand. Covalent bonds occur within each linear strand and strongly bond the bases, sugars, and phosphate groups (both within each component and between components). Hydrogen bonds occur between the two strands and involve a base from one strand with a base from the second in complementary pairing.

Plasmolysis can be defined as the shrinkage of the cytoplasm of a plant cell, away from its cell wall and toward the centre. It occurs because of the movement of water from the intracellular space to the outer-cellular space. This happens when the plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution (i.e., a solution having more solute concentration than the cell cytoplasm). This causes the water to move out of the cell and toward the solution. The cytoplasm of the cell shrinks and the cell is said to be plasmolysed. This process can be observed in an onion peel kept in a highly concentrated salt solution.

Capillaries are very tiny blood vessels — so small that a single red blood cell can barely fit through them. They help to connect your arteries and veins in addition to facilitating the exchange of certain elements between your blood and tissues. Capillaries are the smallest of the body's blood vessels. They are only one cell thick, and they are the sites of the transfer of oxygen and other nutrients from the bloodstream to other tissues in the body. During early embryonic development new capillaries are formed through vasculogenesis, the process of blood vessel formation that occurs through a de novo production of endothelial cells which then form vascular tubes.

The state of being turgid or swollen, especially due to high fluid content is called turgidity.

Turgidity is very important to plants as it helps in the maintenance of rigidity and stability of plant tissue

• The response of plants to periods of day/night is termed photoperiodism.
• Some plants require the exposure to light for a period exceding a well-defined critical duration known as long day plants, whereas others must be exposed to light for a period less than this critical duration before the flowering is initiated in them, known as short day plants.
• The plants in which there is no correlation between exposure to light duration and induction of flowering response; such plants are called day-neutral plants.
• The site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves.
• There is a hormonal substance, which migrates from leaves to shoot apices for inducing flowering only when the plants are exposed to the necessary inductive photoperiod.