During the 'Age of Revolution', the first insurrection took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon dynasty, restored during the conservative reaction after 1815, was overthrown by liberal revolutionaries. In its place, a constitutional moarchy with Louis Philippe at is head was installed. This 'July Revolution' led to another insurrection in Brussels and led to Begium becoming independent from the control of the Kingdom of Netherlands. Even before these events, it had been witnessed that France was the political nervecentre of the rest of Europe. Ever since the French Revolution, the political developments in France had direct impact on the rest of the European continent. Hence Metternich said 'When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold'.

A social division based on shared culture. People belonging to the same ethnic group believe in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of culture or both.  Moral principles that govern a person's behaviour or the conducting of an activity.

India is an agrarian country with around 60% of its people depending directly or indirectly upon agriculture. Farmer suicides account for 11.2% of all suicides in India. In India we haven't done good research on farmers' suicides and in terms of mental health, this has always been seen as a social issue.

Foundational challenge:
1.The challenge of making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government.
2. Bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state.
Challenge of expansion
1. The basic principle of democratic government must be applied across all the regions, different social groups and various institutions.
2. Decision should be democratically taken.
3. Greater powers should be given to the federating units along with women and various other marginalized classes.
Challenge of deepening of democracy
1. Involves strengthening the institutions that help in the participation of people and the functioning of democracies.

Movement group is an organisation which starts a movement to achieve a specific goal or issue. The two types of movement groups are

1. Issue-specific: It seeks to achieve a single objective.
2. Generic: It seeks to achieve a broad goal.

The Equal Remuneration Act in India was enacted to prevent discrimination between workers on grounds of gender. The preamble to the act describes it as:

An Act to provide for the payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers and for the prevention of discrimination, on the ground of ***, against women in the matter of employment and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

The purpose of the act is to make sure that employers do not discriminate on the basis of gender, in matters of wage fixing, transfers, training and promotion. It provides for payment of equal remuneration to men and women workers, for same work or work of similar nature and for the prevention of discrimination against women in the matters of employment.

(i) Seasonal and annual variation in precipitation.
(ii) Unequal access.
(iii) Overexploitation.
(iv) Availability of water varies over space and time.
(v) Excessive use of water resources.
(vi) Many cities have large and growing population resulting in greater demand for water resources. A large population means, not only more water is required for domestic use but also for higher foodgrain productivity. This has led to over-exploitation of water resources to expand irrigated areas especially for dry season agriculture. It has also contributed to falling ground water levels, adversely affecting the water availability and food security of the people.
(vii) Pollution of water bodies due to discharge of industrial effluents, use of pesticides, insecticides and fertilisers used in agriculture, make the river water hazardous for human consumption.

Growing food and other crops for the world market required capital. Large plantations could borrow it from banks and markets.
(i)The Indian bankers were Shikaripuri Shroffs and Nattu Kottai Chettiars.
(ii)They were amongst the many groups of bankers and traders who financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia, using either their own funds or those borrowed from European banks.
(ii)They had a sophisticated system to transfer money over large distances, and even developed indigenous forms of corporate organisation.

Metals occur in earth’s crust and in sea water; in the form of ores. Earth’s crust is the major source of metal. Sea water contains many salts; such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc. Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have uniform composition. The minerals from which a metal can be profitably extracted are called ores.

Right to Be Informed: A consumer has the right to have correct information about a product. There are rules which make it mandatory to mention ingredients and safety features on the pack of a product. Proper information helps a consumer to make informed buying decision. A pack of a product also needs to mention the MRP (Maximum Retail Price) and a consumer can complain if the seller asks for more than the MRP.

Right to Choose: A consumer has the right to choose from different options. A seller cannot just offer to sell only one brand to the consumer. The seller has to offer various options to the consumer. This right is usually enforced through laws against monopoly trade.

Right to Seek Redressal: If a consumer gets affected by false promises made by the producer or suffers because of manufacturing defect; he has the right to seek redressal. Suppose you took a mobile connection and the bill shows many hidden charges which were not explained to you earlier. Or the mobile company activated a ringtone without your permission. Then you can go to the consumer court to put your case.