A homogenous, naturally occurring substance with definable internal structure is called mineral.

Mode of occurrence of minerals:

• In igneous and metamorphic rocks: The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger occurrences are called lodes. They are usually formed when minerals in liquid/molten and gaseous forms are forced upwards through cavities towards the earth’s surface. Examples: tin, copper, zinc, lead, etc.
• In sedimentary rocks: In these rocks, minerals occur in beds or layers. Coal, iron ore, gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt are the minerals found in sedimentary rocks.
• By decomposition of surface rocks: Decomposition of surface rocks and removal of soluble constituents leaves a residual mass of weathered material which contains ores. Bauxite is formed in this way.
• As alluvial deposits: These minerals are found in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called placer deposits. They generally contain those minerals which are not corroded by water. Examples; gold, silver, tin, platinum, etc.
• In ocean water: Most of the minerals in ocean water are too widely diffused to be of economic importance. But common salt, magnesium and bromine are mainly derived from ocean waters.

Various challenges faced by political parties are

(a) The parties are lacking internal democracy, which keeps many prospective leaders deprived of their rights.
(b) There have been dynastic successions in many political parties. This often deprives the parties of appropriate leadership.
(c) The parties something, indulge in the use of money and muscle power for winning elections. This hampers development and is against the spirit of democracy.
(d) There are not many ideological differences between the various parties. So, there is a lack of meaningful choice before the voters.

People feared that the development of print could lead to the growth of dissenting ideas because print and popular literature encouraged many distinctive interpretations of religious faith and ideas. Manocchio gave a new interpretation of the Bible and formulated a view of God and creation that enraged the Roman Catholic Church. As a result he was hauled up twice and ultimately executed when the Roman Church began its inquisition and to repress heretical ideas.

The following are the prerequisites of a Democracy:
a. Fundamental rights- They serve the foundation of any democratic rule. Freedom to exercise choice, freedom of speech and expression, freedom to dissent serves as the real test for a democracy.
b. Periodic elections- Elections must take place regularly so as to bring about peaceful transition from one government to another. Presence of an independent body to conduct free and fair elections is imperative.
c.  Presence of Political Parties- It is important to have two or more parties so a to offer real choices to the people.
d. Adequate representation to groups- This forms the basis of democratic rule. A democracy must ensure adequate power sharing among the groups, individuals and must ensure decentralization so that there is more and more participation and representation of the people.
e. Freedom of Press- Media plays an important role in a democracy in making an informed vigilant citizenry and also in keeping an eye on the government.

•  India has been observing December 24th  as National Consumers’ day.
• It was on this day that the Indian Parliament enacted the Consumer Protection Act in 1986.
• India is one of the countries that have exclusive courts for consumer redressal.

Importance of efficient means of transport for the development is to be explained as:

• Movement of goods and services from their supply locations to demand locations necessitates the need for transport.
• The pace of a country depends upon the production of goods and services as well as their movement over space.
• Therefore efficient means of transport and communication are prerequisites for fast development.

(i) It may lead to widening of income inequalities now enjoy improved quality and lower prices for among various countries.
(ii) Workers jobs are no longer secure.
(iii) Small manufacturers have been hit hard due to companies to emerge as MNCs themselves like severe competition. Tata Motors, Infosys, Ranbaxy, Asian Paints etc
(iv)  Workers are denied their fair share of benefits.
(v)  Lives of workers are on the whims of employers.

• Thousands of US troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and tanks and backed by the most powerful bombers of the time, B-52.
• The widespread attacks and use of chemical weapons like Napalm, Agent Orange and phosphorus bombs—destroyed many villages and decimated jungles.
• Napalm is an organic compound used to thicken gasoline for fire bombs. The mixture burns slowly and when it comes in contact with surfaces like the human body, it sticks and continues to burn.

It is Optional

In paper, there will be the option of Chp 4 or 5 or 6

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Democracies lead to peaceful harmonious life among citizens:
1. No society has a permanent solution for the differences that can come up between various groups in it.
2. But democracy provides the opportunity to negotiate the differences and decide on what is better for everyone.
 3. Non-democratic regimes usually just ignore the internal problems or suppress it.
4. Democracy ensures inclusion of every group including minorities and its interests in the decision making.
5. Democracy reduces the chances of differences or conflicts becoming violent.

Tertiary sector or the service sector composes almost 50% of India's population. The young generation studies hard, get good marks and then simply hunt for a good and secure job. The reasons why this sector is gaining importance can be summed up in the following points:

1. The need for tertiary is increasing as there is more need for services like financial institutions, educational institutions etc. in Indian economy.

2. The tertiary sector accounts for most of the national and per capita income of India.

3. The tertiary sector created huge employment even for the uneducated and unskilled workers.

4. The tertiary sector is responsible to distribute its services and goods to different consumers.

Kerala in India is rich in monazite sands

There is the change in Paper Pattern not in sylabbus. Internal options have been increased.

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Britain which was a leading economy of the world before the First World War faced a prolonged crisis
(i) While Britain was pre-occupied with war, industries had developed in Japan and India. After the war, Britain found it difficult to
recapture its earlier position.
{ii) Britain has borrowed liberally from the USA for its war time expenditure, thus at the end of the war, Britain was burdened with huge external debt.
(iii) After the war, production contracted which led to huge job losses. In 1921, one in every
five British workers was out of work. Anxiety and uncertainty about work became an ,
enduring part of the post-war time.

No British Nation was in existence before the 18th century. Different ethnic groups of people were there in the British Isles such as English, Welsh, Scot and Irish. Each of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. On the other hand, the rest of Europe had no such arrangements. Nationalism in Britain was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was due to a long drawn process. The English nation possessed the other three nations of the islands through a steady growth in property wealth and power. Besides this, the English language, British Flag and National Anthem were promoted as national symbols to identify the nationality of the nation.
The British Parliament became the chief instrument to curb the power of the monarchy in 1688 through a bloodless revolution. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain. With the advent of English power the English removed the cultural, political institutions of Scotland forcefully and the cots were banned from speaking the Gaelic language and put on the national dress.

The printing press was brought to India by the Jesuit missionaries. They came to Goa in the 19th century, who learnt Konkani and printed many tracts. But in 1674, about 50 books were printed in Konkani and Kanarese languages. The Catholic priests published the first book in Tamil in 1579, at Cochin and in 1713 the first book in Malyalam was printed by them. The Dutch Protestant missionaries had already printed 72 Tamil books by 1710, most of them translations of earlier texts. By the end of the 18th century, newspapers began to appear in various Indian languages.

Ho Chin Minh led the Vietnamese nationalist movement against the Japanese imperialist forces, the French colonial power and the the Americans. In 1930, he founded the Indo-Chinese Communist party and later founded Viet-Minh, the communist dominated independent Movement. He led was determined to reunite Vietnam under the communist rule.He was a great nationalist leader of Vietnam who united people of Vietnam in their struggle against the colonists and capitalist forces.

Imperial history paintings were an attempt to create a public memory of imperial triumphs. Victory was a thing which should be implanted in public memory; both Indian and British. Such paintings were used as tools to showcase the British as invincible and all powerful. The scenes were highly dramatized in such paintings and British soldiers were shown as destroying everything which represented India.