• Marianne and Germania were the female allegories of France and Germany.
• They stood as personifications of the ‘Republic’ and ‘Liberty’.
• They were portrayed that they gave the abstract idea of a nation in a concrete form.
• They would establish a sense of nationality in the citizens of these countries.  

Each kidney in a human contains millions of nephrons. Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney.  Kidneys contain two types of nephrons: cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons, which are located in different parts of the renal cortex. A nephron is composed of a renal corpuscle, a renal tubule, and the associated capillary network.
The main function of nephron is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. A nephron eliminates wastes from the body, regulates blood volume and blood pressure, controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulates blood pH.  The hormones like antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone are mainly helps in regulating these functions. In humans, a normal kidney contains 800,000 to 1.5 million nephrons.   

(i) Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is completed leaving deep scars and traces of over burdening.
(ii) In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa deforestation due to mining have caused severe land degradation.
(iii) In the states of Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
(iv) The Mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement industry and calcite and soapstone for ceramic industry generate large quantity of dust in the atmosphere.
(v) It retards the process of infiltration of water into the soil.

(a) The war created a new economic and political situation.
(b) it led to huge increase in defense expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes, custom duties were raised and income tax was introduced.
(c) Prices increased, doubling between 1913-18. This hit the common people.
(d) Villagers were asked to supply soldiers and through force recruitment in rural areas.
(e) During 1918-19, crops failed in many parts of India which created shortage of food.
(f) Spread of influenza epidemic and 12 to 13 million people died.

After the death of King Manuel, da Gama was asked to return to India, in an effort to contend with the growing corruption from Portuguese officials in the country. In 1524, King John III named da Gama Portuguese viceroy in India.

That same year, da Gama died in Cochin—the result, it has been speculated, from possibly overworking himself. His body was sailed back to Portugal, and buried there, in 1538.

• The growth of modern nationalism is intimately connected to the anti-colonial movement in India, just like in any other country.
• In the process of their struggle with colonialism people began discovering their unity.
• Anti-colonial movement gave a strong issue to the people with which they could identify and could come on a common platform.
• All though each class or group of people felt that they were being oppressed under colonialism, the effects of colonialism were felt differently.
• Hence, the growth of nationalism in the colonies is linked to an anti-colonial movement. 

Lord Irwin announced a vague offer of dominion status for India, in October 1929.

He was a British politician and he held the senior cabinet post from 1 world war to 2 , second world war .
The British government constituted a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon. The commission was made to look into the functioning of the constitutional system in India and suggest changes. But since all the members in the commission were British , the Indian leaders opposed the commission. The Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928. It was greeted with the slogan ‘Go back Simon'.

Mahatma Gandhi advocated a novel method of mass agitation; called satyagraha. This method was based on the idea that if someone is fighting for a true cause, there is no need to take recourse to physical force to fight the oppressor. Gandhiji believed that a satyagrahi could win a battle through non-violence, i.e. without being aggressive or revengeful.
A Khilafat committed was formed in Bombay in March 1919 to defend the Khalifa. This committee had leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. They also wanted Mahatma Gandhi to take up the cause to build a united mass action

1. Physical Factors:  Physical factors affecting agriculture are: (i) climate (ii) soil and (iii) topography.

(i) Climate: Climate plays a dominating role in agriculture. Plants require sufficient heat and moisture for their growth. Normally, regions having maximum temperature of less than 10°C are not suitable for plant growth. In the tropical regions, where temperature is high throughout the year, agriculture is successfully done.

Plant life is not possible in dry areas except that with the help of irrigation. The moisture requirements vary from plant to plant and region to region. In the lower latitudes, where temperature is high, plants need more moisture for their growth (75cm to 100cm). On the other hand, in the higher latitudes where summers are cool, winds are not dry, rainfall of 50-62 cm is sufficient for plant growth.

(ii) Soils: The richness of soil is another important physical factor affecting agriculture. Soils differ in respect of physical and chemical composition. Soils may be fine or coarse, porous or non-porous. In general fine soils like loam or silt are very fertile. The chemical composition of the soil determines its productivity.

Generally, the soils which are found at the place of their origin, known as residual soils, are poorer than those which have been transported from the place of their origin. The transported soils are rich and have a variety of minerals in them. The transported soils are: (a) loess, transported by wind (b) alluvial, transported by river water (c) glacial, transported by glaciers.

The fertility of the soils decreases with constant cultivation. Soils become infertile if the fertility is not renewed. This can be achieved by leaving the land fallow, by rotation of crop and by use of manures and fertilizers.

Soil erosion and water logging have become major problems with soils as such these should be checked by adopting contour farming, terrace farming, constructing dams and dykes.

(iii) Topography : The nature of topography plays a significant role in the development of agriculture. It determines extent of soil erosion, methods of cultivation and mode of transportation. In the mountanous and hilly regions, soil erosion is common; terrain restricts use of machinery and development of means of transportation. However, in the flat regions, there is no such problem. Plain regions have fertile soils. The flat topography facilitates use of machines. Means of transportation can be easily developed in the plain areas. Moreover, dense population in the plain regions provides cheap agricultural labour and a huge market for the products. The alluvial plains, the river valleys and the deltas are very suitable for agriculture.

2. Economic Factors: The most important economic factors affecting agriculture are: (a) market (b) transport facilities (c) labour (d) capital (e) Government policies.

(a) Market.: Market is an important economic factor in agriculture. The distance from the market determines the cost of transportation. Agricultural crops like vegetables etc. are grown near the market.

Sugarcane is grown close to the urban centres, where sugar mills have developed. Similarly, dairy farming is developed around the cities, which serve as markets for the dairy products.

(b) Transport Facilities: The development of efficient means of transportation widen the market for agricultural products.

(c) Capital: Agriculture, in the modern times is becoming mechanized. This involves huge capital investments. Purchase of machinery, fertilizers, pesticides and high yielding variety seeds require plenty of money. In India, the farmers are poor.

They cannot afford use of modern farm technology, thus it affects agricultural production. The factor of availability of capital plays a significant role in the development of agriculture.

(d) Labour: The supply of labour determines the character and type of agriculture. Intensive cultivation requires a large supply of cheap labour. Availability of cheap and efficient labour is essential for the cultivation of crops like rice, tea, cotton and rubber. Thus, the factor of availability of labour also plays a vital role in agriculture.

(e) Government Policies: The policies of the Government also influence agricultural land use. The Government may restrict the cultivation of a crop or may force the farmers to grow a particular crop, e.g., area under sugarcane and oil seeds cultivation has increased in India on account of greater emphasis put by the Government on these crops. Government subsidy or liberal loan in respect of a particular crop helps in larger acreage under that crop. After 1947, the Government of India gave tax relief and concessions to the farmers for growing jute, with the result that in different parts of the country, area under jute cultivation had increased to a large extent.

3. Other Factors

(i) The level of scientific and technological development has a great bearing on agriculture. Farmers, using primitive methods obtain poor yields. But on the other hand, where farmers are using modern farm technology in the shape of fertilizers, pesticides, machinery and high yielding variety seeds etc. the farm yields are high.

An Indian farmer is poorer in comparison to an American farmer because the later uses modern farm technology. The per hectare yield of rice in India is only 2000 kg as compared to about 5600 kg in Japan. This difference in yield is due to scientific and technological differences.

The system of land tenure also plays a significant role in the patterns and productivity of agriculture crops.

The Khilafat issue gave him the opportunity to bring the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform. The Ottoman Turkey was badly defeated in the First World War. There were rumours about a harsh peace treating likely to be imposed on the Ottoman emperor; who was the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa). A Khilafat committed was formed in Bombay in March 1919 to defend the Khalifa. This committee had leaders like the brothers Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali. They also wanted Mahatma Gandhi to take up the cause to build a united mass action. At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, the resolution was passed to launch a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat and also for swaraj.

It means a belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority, e.g., Sri Lanka opted for majoritarianism in which majority Sinhalas rule the country.

• Odisha-fharkhand Belt: In Odisha, high grade haematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts. In the adjoining Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, haematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi.
• Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt: It lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high grade haematite are found in the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh. It has the best physical properties needed for steel making; iron ore from these mines is exported to Japan, South Korea via the Vishakhapatnam port.
• Bellary-Chikmaglur-Chitradurga Belt: Tumkur belt in Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore. The Kudermukh mines located in the western ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per cent export unit. Kudermukh deposits are known to be one of the largest in the world.
• Mahcirashtra-Goa belt:'It includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Though the ores are not of very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited. Iron ore is exported through the Marmagao port.