1. The government can spend some money or banks can provide loans to construct wells to irrigate the land of poor farmers.
2. Government can develop tourism or regional craft industries. It would encourage the small farmers to get additional income.
3. Suppose a new dam is constructed and canals are dug to irrigate many farms, this could lead to lot of employment generation within the agricultural sector itself reducing the problem of underemployment.
4. Poor farmers need seeds, fertilizers, and agricultural equipments. If the local banks give them credit at reasonable rate of interest, they will be able to buy them in time and cultivate their land.
5. Another way, by which we can tackle this problem, is to identify, promote and locate industries and services in semi-rural areas where a large number of people may be employed.

The following factors led to the incorporation of Ireland in the United Kingdom:
a. The social divisions in  Ireland between the protestants and catholics helped the British to establish dominance of Protestants over a catholic country.

b. Suppression of  catholic revolts by the English and forcible incorporation of Ireland took place in 1801.
c. As English nation grew in power and influence it tried  to suppress Ireland's distinctive culture and also forced them to speak English language. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language – were actively promoted.

During the 19th century,nationalism emerged as a vibrant force which brought drastic changes in the political world of Europe.The end result of these changes due to nationalism gave rise to the nation-states in place of multi-national dynasties of Europe.

The Process of Unification of Italy is as follows :

1. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. Mazzini decided to unite Italy in 1830, He had organised a secret society called 'Young Italy' to achieve his aim.
2. Mazzini, a great revolutionary leader of Italy, inspired the youth with the ideas of establishing a single unified Italy. He set up secret societies like Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne with like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and German states.
3. After initial failures in 1831 and 1848, King Victor Emmanuel II took up the task of unifying the Italian states through wars.
4. Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859 through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Count Cavour.
5. Armed volunteers marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1860 under the leadership of Garibaldi, and were successful in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
6. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel-II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

The problems were faced by the Indian cotton weavers in the nineteenth century are as follows: 

1. Import duties: The export market of Indian cotton weaver collapsed due to increase in import duties on them in England.
2. Cheap competitive products: Their local market shrank as they were flooded with cheap Manchester imports.
3. Insufficent raw cotton: The local weavers could not get sufficient supply of raw cotton of good quality.
4. High prices: When the Americans civil war broke out and cotton supplies from the US were cut off, Britain turned to India. Indian weavers were forced to buy cotton at very high prices.
5. Machine-made goods: By the end of nineteenth century, factories in India began production and flooded the market with machine goods. This created the problem of survival for weaving industries.

Duke Metternich was an Austrian Chancellor. He was born on 15th May 1773. When the treaty of Vienna was drawn up by Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia, he was responsible to held the meeting. He took a prominent part in Congress of Vienna and dominated the European politics from 1814 to 1848.

A body of active citizens, elected the Estates General and renamed it the National Assembly.

A. After the storming of the Bastille in 1789, a law was passed according to which censorship on press was abolished.
B. The Constitution of 1701 began with a Declaration of the Rights of man and citizen. It proclaimed that freedom of speech and opinion and equality before law were natural rights of each human being by birth.
C. Newspapers, pamphlets and printed pictures appeared steadily in the towns of France. From France this printed material travelled into countryside. These publications described and discussed the events and changes taking place in country.
D. The Freedom of Press allowed expression of the opposing views of events. Each side could now try to convince others of its stand on any event or problem.
E. Much use was made of plays, songs and festive processions which attracted large number of people.

Oak leaves stands for valour,courage and honour.
Germania was a allegory representing Germany who was under the rule of foreign forces .

Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country. Federal governments have two or more tiers of government. In a federal form of government, the central government shares its powers with the various constituent units of the country. Both types of governments enjoy independent powers and are separately answerable to the people. For example, in India, power is divided between the Central Government and the various State governments. In a unitary form of government, either there is one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the Central government. In this, the Central government can pass orders to the provincial or the regional government. For example, in Sri Lanka, the national government has all the powers.

‘Sri Lankan Tamils’ started their struggle by lanching their political parties for the;
(i) recognition of Tamil as an official language and regional autonomy.
(ii) For regional autonomy.
(iii) Equality of opportunity in securing education and jobs.
In order to protest for their demand they started a political struggle in the way of conflict with the government.
(i) By 1980s several political organisation were formed demanding an independent Tamil Elam (State) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
(ii) The distrust between the two communities turned into wide spread conflict which soon turned into a civil war.
(iii) Asa resultthousandsofpeopleof posh communities have been killed and caused a terrible set back to the social, cultural and economic life of the country.

You can check the syllabus here : https://mycbseguide.com/cbse-syllabus.html

Chandragupta Maurya (321-;297 BCE) was the founder of the Mauryan dynasty in India. The empire set up by him was the first and one of the greatest empires of ancient India.
Father: Sarvarthasiddhi

• The 1848 revolution of the liberals:

1. The 1848 revolution was led by the educated middle class along with the poor, unemployed, starving peasants and workers in many European countries for fulfilling their demands of constitutionalism with national unification.

• Following were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals:

1. Political ideas: The ideology of liberalism supported the ideas of national unity and abolition of aristocratic privileges. In German regions, a large number of political associations whose members were middle-class professionals, businessman and prosperous artisans came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for all German National Assembly.
2. Social ideas: A large number of women had participated actively and formed their own political associations founded a newspaper, took part in political meetings and struggled for the right to vote. They supported freedom for the individual and the idea of equality of all before the law.
3. Economic ideas: Liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.

Millets are a group of highly variable small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food.

The soil is basically classified into four types:

• Sandy soil: The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor in holding water, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone, and quartz.
• Silt Soil: Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is made up of rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and quite fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand.
• Clay Soil: Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This soil has very good water storage qualities and making hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it.
• Loamy Soil: Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such that the beneficial properties from each is included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for farming.

The history of developed countries reveals a general pattern of development in their economic structure.
First, Primary sectors predominandy contributed to GDP and held most of the employment. Then when agricultural activities increased, there was need for industrialisation and gradually industrial sectors dominated the economy. .
Much of the workers shifted to industrial sector, but Primary productivity did not hamper as industrial sector produced much sophisticated instruments and inputs that increased the productivity and filled the gap of loss of workforce. After a hundred years, service sector groomed up and most of the workers shifted to service sector and now, service sector contributes maximum to the share of economy.
The service sector has now become the most important sector in terms of total production and employmeht generation without disturbing the production and productivity of other two sectors.
So, it is seen that central tendency of economic structure had been shifting from Primary to Secondary and finally to Tertiary sector in developed countries. Similarly, almost all the developing countries are following the same path but may be in a different pace.

The Bretton Woods system was post-war international economic system. It was the first system used to control the value of money between different countries. 

The Civil Disobedience Movement was different from the Non-Cooperation Movement. The main differences between these two movements are
(i) The Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in 1921 by Gandhiji, but the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched in 1930.
(ii) The Non-Cooperation Movement started with middle class participation whereas the Civil Disobedience Movement was first supported by the Industrialists like GD Birla, Purshottamdas Thakur.
(iii) Due to Khalifa issues Muslim community participated in Non-Cooperation on large scale. But the growing proximity of the Congress party and Hindu Mahasabha prevented the Muslims to participate in Civil Disobedience Movement.
(iv) The Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn by Gandhiji due to violent incident at Chauri Chaura.
But the Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn in 1931, when Gandhi signed ‘Gandhi-Irwin’ pact.
(v) In Non-Cooperation Movement, Women did not participate in large scale. But large scale participation of women is one of the most significant features of the Civil Disobedience Movement.