A party that secures at least six percent of the total votes in an election to the Legislative Assembly of a state and wins at least two seats is recognized as a state party.

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the nation:

1. The shaping of nationalist feeling and its expression was helped by art and poetry, stories and music.
2. Romantic artists and poets generally strongly criticised reason and science in their glorified forms.
3. The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of local folklore, recovered an ancient national spirit, as well as carried the modern nationalist message to large audiences that were mostly illiterate.

Following are the factors which led to the rise of Nationalism in Europe:

1. Decline of feudalism: Feudal lords were a great tumbling block in the way of the rise of the nationalism feelings among the people. But their mutual warfare and crusades weakened them.
2. Weakness of Papacy and the Roman Empire: The renaissance and reformation movements led to awakening among the people and weakened the authority of the pope and the Holy Roman Empire. Consequently, national churches and national states were established in many countries.
3. Foreign rule: In certain countries, foreign rule also played an important part in the growth of nationalism.
4. Reaction against injustice: Sometimes reaction against the arbitrary rule of unjust monarchs also gave birth to the feeling of nationalism.
5. Contribution of great writers: The writings of great poets, politicians and philosophers like Machiavelli, J.S. Mill, Fitch, Mazzini, Garibaldi etc. went a long way in rousing political consciousness and national sprit among the people.

Factors of production:

Land:  It is defined so as to include not only the surface of the Earth but also all the other gifts of nature.

Labour: Labour consists of all human efforts of the body or mind which are undertaken in the expectation of reward.

Capital: Capital is known as the produced means of production. First, it is created by man and is not a gift of nature. Second, it is a means of production and used as an input in producing other goods. Such type of goods is not directly consumed. 

Human Capital: A human capital is a person who carries the risk of business and coordinates the activities of all the other factors of production.
Out of all the four factors of production, human capital is considered the best among all the resources. This is because it makes use of the other resources like land, labour and physical capital to produce an output while the other resources cannot become useful on their own. 

Green revolution refers to the introduction of High yielding variety (HYV) of seeds and increased use of fertilizer and irrigation methods.
It took place during the 1960s especially 1965onwards. It was aimed at providing increase in production to make India self-sufficient in food grains. Newer technologies included pesticides,nitrogen fertilizers,improved crop variety etc. It was aimed at increasing the food security .
The father of this revolution,'Norman Borlaug' received Nobel peace prize in 1970. His efforts saved the lives of millions of people from starvation.
M.S Swaminathan is another Indian geneticist who played a special role in India's Green Revolution programme. HYVs of wheat and rice were grown in the fields of poor farmers.

The land which is unsuitable for cultivation due to soil erosion is called ravines
A ravine is usually larger than a gully. A ravine may have an active stream year around or during the wet season.

The land which is unsuitable for cultivation due to soil erosion is called ravines
A ravine is usually larger than a gully. A ravine may have an active stream year around or during the wet season.

The real success of federalism in India can be attributed to the nature of democratic politics in our country. This ensured that the spirit of federalism, respect for diversity and desire for living together became a shared ideal in our country. This happened through the following ways:

Linguistic States: After the independence of India in 1947, many states were created based on the languages which were spoken by the people such as Maharashtra, Punjab and West Bengal.

Language Policy: The leaders of our country adopted a very cautious attitude while forming the language policy. While Hindi, spoken by about 40% of our population, was declared as the national language, many languages were also recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. Apart from Hindi, there are 21 scheduled languages.

Centre–State Relations: After Independence, there were only few parties which formed governments at the centre and at the state levels. However, the condition improved after 1990 when many regional parties emerged in different states. THis led to an era of power sharing. 

The functions performed by supply merchants in the export trade were as follows:

1. Supply merchants linked the port towns to the inland regions.
2. They gave advances to weavers, procured the woven cloth from weaving villagers and carried the supply to the ports.
3. At the port, the big shippers and export merchants had brokers who negotiated the price and bought goods from the supply merchants who were operating inland and sold them abroad.

Public facilities are the essential facilities for the community at large and are provided by the government.
Important :
They are important because there are many services like education, health, transportation etc., which have become cheap and affordable if provided, collectively.
Public facilities : Rail transport and - government schools.

During the mid-eighteenth century, a landed aristocracy was dominant class in Europe both politically and socially.

1. The members of this landed aristocracy were united by a common way of life that cut across regional division.
2. They owned huge properties both in rural and urban areas.
3. Their families were tied together by matrimonial relations and they wielded much power in their respective countries.

Napoleon incorporated revolutionary principles in the administrative field to make the whole system more rational and effective. His civil code of 1804 was known as Napoleonic Code.

1. It did away with all the privileges based on birth.
2. It established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
3. It simplified administrative divisions and abolished feudal system. It freed peasants from serfdom and manorial duties.
4. Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen found new-found freedom as guild restrictions were removed in towns also.

The civil code of 1804 also known as the Napoleonic Code was enacted on March 21, 1804. It was one of the most important code of those times because institutionalised equalilty under law i.e. it ruled out privileges to people that were based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and stated that only the most qualified would be entitled to government jobs. 

Language policy is a safeguard to the languages. It is one of the important aspects of our Constitution. Under this policy besides Hindi, 21 other languages are recognized as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution.
Main features of India’s language policy are as follows:

1. Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 percent of Indians. Therefore, there were many safeguards to protect other languages.
2.  A candidate in an examination conducted for the Central Government positions may opt to take the examination in any of these languages. States, too, have their own official languages. Much of the government work takes place in the official language of the concerned State.
3. Unlike Sri Lanka, the leaders of our country adopted a very cautious attitude in spreading the use of Hindi. According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965. However, many non-Hindi-speaking States demanded that the use of English continue.
4. In Tamil Nadu, this movement took a violent form. The Central Government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes.
5. Promotion of Hindi continues to be the official policy of the government of India but promotion does not mean that the central government can impose Hindi on states where people speak a different language.
   Thus, the framing of the language policy was the test for Indian federation. It inspired the confidence in different language speaking people that no language will be imposed on them. In a way, Language policy has strengthened the unity and integrity of India.

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse in form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of interdependencies.
Following are the importance: of biodiversity

1. Human beings depend on biodiversity for their very survival.
2. Without plants and animals we cannot survive, because we get oxygen from plant and it create the quality of air we breathe in.

In French Revolution, print culture played an important role
(i) Print materials like newspapers and books popularised the ideas of the enlightenment thinkers. They gave a critical commentary on tradition, superstition and despotism in contemporary society.
They suggested that everything should be judged through application of reason and rationality. They criticised the sacred authority of church and the despotic power of the state. They questioned about the legitimacy of a social order based on tradition.
The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely. Those who read them developed an attitude of questioning, criticism and judging on the basis of rationality.
(it) Print created a new culture of dialogue and debate. All values, norms and institutions were re-evaluated and public recognised the need to question existing ideas and beliefs.
(iit) By the 1780s, there was an outpouring of literature, cartoons and caricatures which circulated everywhere and led to the growth of hostile sentiments against the monarchy. In this way, print helped people to think differently.

Mahatma Gandhi is known to have used the novel method of mass agitation - satyagraha - against the racist regime in South Africa. The idea of satyagraha emphasises the power of truth and the need to search for truth. It suggests that if the cause is true and is arrayed against injustice, then physical force is not necessary to fight the oppressor. A satyagrahi can win the battle, not necessarily by seeking vengeance or being aggressive, but through non-violence, by appealing to the conscience of the oppressor. Satyagraha proposes that people, including the oppressors, have to be persuaded to see the truth, instead of being coerced into accepting it through direct or indirect violence. By this struggle, truth is bound to ultimately emerge triumphant.

The Rowlatt Act came into effect in March 1919. In the Punjab the protest movement was very strong, and on 10 April two leaders of the congress, Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested and taken secretly to Dharamsala.

(i) Division of powers : The Constitution demarcates the powers of the central and the state governments into different lists of subjects.There are three lists :
(i) Union List.
(ii) State List.
(iii) Concurrent List.
(ii) Three-tier system : As discussed earlier, under a federal government different tiers of the government govern the same citizens. This is true for India. In India, we have a three-tier system of government, i.e.,
• Union Government
• State Government
• Local Self-Government.
(iii) Not equal powers to all administrative units : Most of the federations that are formed by ‘holding together’ do not give equal powers to its constituent units. Thus, all states in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. Some states enjoy a special status. Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution. Many provisions of the Indian Constitution are not applicable to this state without the permission of the state assembly.
(iv) Consent of both the levels of the government : Under a federal government, the fundamental provisions cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of the government, and the same is true for India. The Parliament cannot on its own change the fundamental structure of the Constitution.
implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. The same is true for India. In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court take a decision.
(vi) Separate lear mention regarding the financial powers of the centre and the states has been made in the Indian Constitution. Income tax, excise duty, corporation tax, etc., are levied and colle

Land resources in India are primarily divided into agricultural land, forest land, land meant for pasture and grazing, land for other non-agricultural use(such as housing, roads and industry) and waste land (rocky, arid and desert areas). In 2002-03, 54 per cent of the total land area was cultivable or fallow, 22.5 per cent was covered by forests and 3.5 per cent was used for grazing. The rest was waste land, with traces of miscellaneous cultivation.
Improper use of forest land has degraded the available land area and made conservation of forests difficult. Human activities such as deforestation, mining and quarrying have contributed to the slow growth rate of forests. Thus, land ’ under forest has increased by only about 4 per cent since 1960-61.

Methods of prevention of soil erosion –
a) Deforestation should be stopped. Afforestion should be done.
b) The boundaries of the fields should be planted with trees in two or three rows, to reduce the effect of strong winds in the fields.
c) Crop rotation helps to maintain the fertility of the soil. The water holding capacity of the soil is also maintained by this method.