• The  newly  emerged  middle  class  in  Germany  in  1848  tried  to  unite  several German  kingdoms which  were  suppressed  by  monarchies  and  large  landowners into one nation state governed by an elected body.
• Prussia, a German kingdom, took the leadership in uniting various German states. Otto  von  Bismarck,  the  Chief  Minister  of  Prussia, aimed  to  achieve  the  goal  of unification with the help of the Prussian army and the bureaucracy.
• Spread over seven years, the Prussian army with the help of the Austrian, French and Danish armies fought three wars and successfully incorporated all the small German kingdoms. This marked the process of completion of German unification.
• The  German  unification  was  completed  in  1871  and  in  the  same  year William I was  declared  as  the emperor of Germany at the Palace of Versailles.
• The process of the unification of Germany exhibited the power of the Prussian state. Many new reforms were initiated in banking, currency, administration and judiciary in Germany.

The five farming techniques which helps in soil conservation are:

1. Strip Cropping:  To counter the effect of wind the practice of strip cropping is followed to stop wind erosion. Large fields are divided in strips. Grass in strips is left to grow between the crops.
2. Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines does not let water run down the slopes. This technique involved ploughing along contours, so that the furrows follow lines linking points of the same height. Such furrows halt the downward flow of water and reduce erosion.
3. Terrace Farming: Since ancient times farmers have built terraces or steps up a hillside creating several levels of farms. Hill slopes are cut into a number of terraces having horizontal top and steep slopes on the back and front.
4. Crop Rotation: If the same crop is sown in the same field year after year, this consumes particular nutrients from the soil, thus making it infertile. Crop rotation can check the type of erosion.
5. Shelter Belts: Planting trees to create shelter also works in a similar way. Rows of such trees are called shelter belts. These shelter belts have contributed significantly to the stabilization of sand dunes and in establishing the desert in western India.

Value of all final goods and services produced within the domestic territory of the country over one year period

I) When a consumer is cheated in any way, either by the shopkeeper or the producer, by giving him poor quality or adulterated goods or by charging more price for a commodity or a service, it is called consumer’s exploitation.
(ii) People may be exploited in the market in the following ways :–
1. Under weighing. Many dishonest shopkeepers weigh less than that they should.
2. Adulteration. At times adulterated or defective goods are sold in the market.
3. Additional charges. Sometimes traders add charges that were not mentioned before.
4. False and incomplete information. To sell more products, generally false information is passed on through media and other sources to attract consumers.
5. Artificial scarcity. Traders sometimes tend to create artificial scarcity of a particular good by hoarding it to increase the price and earn high profit.

It is true that for development, people look at a mix of goals. Income is not only an important factor leading to the country's development. The other factors like freedom, respect, peace, harmony are as important as income. We can understand this with the following example.

1. If women are engaged in paid work, their dignity in the household and society increases. So in this case other than the income from the job, dignity is an important goal.
2. However, it is also the case that if there is respect for women, there would be more sharing of housework and greater acceptance of women working outside.
3. A safe and secure environment may allow more women to take up a variety of jobs or run a business. These are goals other than income. Hence, the development goal is not only for better income but for other important things in life like an increase in human value. 

1. Power sharing among the different organs of government (Horizontal power sharing). In a democracy, power is shared among the different organs of the government such as the legislature, executive and the judiciary. This is called the horizontal distribution of power because it allows different organs of the government placed at the same level to exercise different powers. Under this kind of power sharing arrangement, one can exercise unlimited powers. Each organ has its own powers, and it can also check the powers of other. So this results in a balance of power among the various institutions.
2. Power sharing among governments at different levels : Under this, people choose separate governments at separate levels, for example, a general local government for the entire country and local governments at the provincial, sub-national or regional levels. Such a general government for the entire country is usually called a Federal government.
3. Power sharing among different social groups : In a democracy, especially, in a multi-ethnic society, power is also shared among social groups such as the religious and linguistic groups. ‘Community government’ in Belgium is a good example of this arrangement. In some countries, there are constitutional and legal arrangements whereby socially weaker sections and women are represented in the legislatures and the administration.
4. Power sharing among political parties, pressure groups and movements : In a democracy, power is also shared among different political parties, pressure groups and movements. Democracy provides the citizens a choice to choose their rulers. This choice is provided by the various political parties, who contest elections to win them. Such competition ensures that power does not remain in one hand

The Process of Unification of Italy is as follows :

1. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. Mazzini decided to unite Italy in 1830, He had organised a secret society called 'Young Italy' to achieve his aim.
2. Mazzini, a great revolutionary leader of Italy, inspired the youth with the ideas of establishing a single unified Italy. He set up secret societies like Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne with like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and German states.
3. After initial failures in 1831 and 1848, King Victor Emmanuel II took up the task of unifying the Italian states through wars.
4. Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859 through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France by Count Cavour.
5. Armed volunteers marched into South Italy and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1860 under the leadership of Garibaldi, and were successful in winning the support of the local peasants in order to drive out the Spanish rulers.
6. In 1861, Victor Emmanuel-II was proclaimed king of united Italy.

Soil conservation is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve the degraded condition of the soil.

The measures that can be taken for the conservation of the soil are as follows:

1. Contour ploughing: If ploughing in done at right angles to the hill slope, following the natural contours of the hill, the ridges and furrows break the flow of water down the hill. This prevents excessive soil loss as gullies are less likely to develop and also reduce run-off so that plants receive more water. Thus by growing crops in contour pattern, plants can absorb much of the rain water and erosion is minimised.
2. Shelterbelt: Planting rows of trees along the edges of fields helps in checking soil erosion through wind.
3. Strip cropping: Dividing the field into strips and letting grass grow between the crops breaks the force of the wind thereby checking soil erosion.

Following are the points which are used by world bank in classifying different countries:

• The countries with per capita income of US$ 1045 or less are called low income countries.
• According to world development report, the countries with per capita income of US$ 12, 736 per annum and above in 2013, are called rich countries.

Limitations of this criterion are given below:

• Some may be very rich but the masses maybe poor. That is, it hides disparities.
• It doesn't tell us how the income is distributed among people.

Steps which were taken by the Srilankan government to achieve majoritorianism are : 

• Tamils were denied of equal political rights and were discriminated.
• The governments followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.
• A new constitution stipulated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.

Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling most of Southeast Europe, parts of Central Europe, Western Asia, parts of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus, North Africa and the Horn of Africa. It was a muslim empire. It's captital was Constantinople.
                                                   

The Zila Parishad is an elected body. The members of the Zila Parishad are elected by people of a district. The members elect the two top office-bearers of the Zila Parishad- the President and the Vice-President. The other members of the Zila Parishad are as follows:

1. Chairpersons of the Block Samitis.
2. Members of Parliament and State Legislatures (Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad).
3. Important officers such as collectors, judges, police officers.
4. Members representing the Scheduled Castes, the Schedule Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
5. Women - one-third of the total seats are reserved for them.

There were three main obstacles to the political unification of Italy:

1. The occupation of the northern states of Lombardy and Venice by Austria.
2. The Papal States of the central swathes of Italian peninsula would not be given up by the Pope.
3. There were also kingdoms and states which had maintained their political independence for a long time. An important example of this was the kingdom of Sardinia, also called Piedmont Sardinia.

The big European powers met in Berlin in 1885 (Berlin Conference) to negotiate and formalize claims in Africa.

During the New Imperialism age, various big European powers colonize Africa and came into conflict with each other. So in order to resolve the conflict, Bismark, the emperor of Germany called the meeting of big European powers n Berlin where they negotiated and formalized claims in Africa.

A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the government. They agree on some policies and programmes for the society with a view to promote the collective good.

A political party tries to convince people that its policies are better than others’ policies. They try to win elections so that they can implement their policies.

Thus, parties reflect fundamental political divisions in a society. Parties are about a part of the society and thus involve PARTISANSHIP. Thus a party is known by which part it stands for, which policies it supports and whose interests it upholds. A political party has three components:

• The Leaders
• The Active Members and
• The Followers

* Members of the same caste followed the same or similar occupation.
* They married people within their same caste.
* Those who belonged to different caste groups never ate together.
* Those who belonged to different castes could not belong to the same community.
* Lower caste groups are often discriminated. They are referred to as dalits and untouchables , and they are   prohibited from entering public places like temples.

People have different perceptions about an ideal women. For example for a fashion industry she is an ideal beauty, for a society she is an ideal house wife who takes care of the family and performs all the household tasks efficiently, for an employer she is an ideal employee, for the prospective in laws she is an ideal bride who takes care of her husband and in-laws etc.
In a true sense a women can be called ideal if she is able to perform efficiently both as a homemaker and an employee outside. Gender stereotyping is one of the social evils existing in our society due to which women have been a depressed class and restricted mainly to the household activities while men are considered superior to women and do outside work. Changes are taking place in our society where the women can be seen bringing a change by stepping out of the house to do the outside work and be on equal footing with men. However it is challenging for a women to carry out both the tasks. She has to work all day at office and do the household tasks after she reaches home. It is the women who has to be a perfect wife, a perfect mother, a perfect daughter, a perfect sister, at home and a perfect employee outside. 

(i) The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria—Hungary included the Alpine regions—the Tyrol, Austria and the Sudetenland—as well as Bohemia, where the aristocracy was pre-dominantly German-speaking.
(ii) The Empire also included the Italian-speaking provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
(iii) In Hungary, half of the population spoke Magyar while the other half spoke a variety of dialects. In Galicia, the aristocracy spoke Polish. Besides these dominant groups, there also lived within the boundaries of the empire, a mass of subject peasant peoples—Bohemians and Slovaks to the north, Slovenes in Carniola, Croats to the south and Roumans to the east in Transylvania.

The idea of power sharing has emerged in opposition to the notions of undivided political power. For a long time, it was believed that all powers of a government must reside in one person or group of persons located at one place. It was felt that if the power to decide is dispersed, it would not be possible to take quick decisions and to enforce them. But these notions have changed with the emergence of democracy.

Jobbers were usually employed by the industrialists to recruit the right people for work from villages out of the various job seekers. A jobber often demanded money or gifts for his favour (that is for finding a job for someone). The main functions of a Jobber were :
(i)Getting people from villages.
(ii)Ensuring them jobs.
(iii)Helping them to settle in the city and to provide them money in times of crisis.