The following were the reasons for the clashes between the gomasthas and the weavers in the villages:

1. Earlier supply merchants had lived within the village and had a close relationship with the weavers. They looked after the needs and helped them in case of crisis. The new gomasthas were outsiders.
2. The gomasthas had no social link with villagers. They had no sympathy with the weavers and acted arrogantly and marched into a village with sepoys and peons, often beating and flogging them mercilessly.
3. The weavers could not sell their cloth to other buyers because they had to sell to the company due to the loans they took from them. They had to accept the price offered by the company to them, although it was very low.

Some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe preferred hand labour to machines because of the following reasons:

1. Machines were costly, ineffective, difficult to repair and required huge capital investments.
2. Labour was available at low wages at that period of time. Only seasonal labour was required in seasonal industries.
3. A range of products could be produced only with hand labour. Machines were oriented to produce uniform and standardized goods for a mass market. But, the demand in the market was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes.
4. In the Victorian age, the aristocrats and other upper-class people preferred articles made by hand only.

1. Before the eighteenth century, there were different ethnic identities with its own culture and politics-English, Welsh, Scot, and Irish.
2. As the English nation's wealth and power increased, its influence over other island nations also increased.

3. the English parliament which has seized power from the monarchy in 1688 was the instrument through which a nation state, with England came to be forged.

4.. the act of union 1707  between England and Scotland had resulted in the formation of united kingdom of great Britain
5. Ireland was also later forcibly incorporated into UK in 1801 a new British nation was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture

1. Broad gauge:  –The width in case of Broad gauge between two parallel tracks is 1. 676 m . The trains running on a broad gauge has larger carriages. These serve most densely populated districts that are usually fertile. Example: Connectivity between major cities such as Delhi – Mumbai.
2. Metre gauge – A metre gauge railway track has 1000 mm distance between the two parallel tracks which is the standard size for most of the trains worldwide. All the metre gauge lines except the heritage Nilgiri Mountain Railway are being converted to broad gauge as part of Project Unigauge, These are laid in less densely populated districts. Example: districts far from major cities (smaller districts in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh).
3. Narrow gauge  – India has two different narrow gauge systems, 2 ft 6 in) (762 mm) and 2 ft(610 mm) Narrow gauge railways are served for sparsely populated districts.
All the narrow gauge lines except heritage lines Kalka–Shimla Railway, Darjeeling Himalayan Railway and Matheran Hill Railway are being converted to broad gauge as part of Project UnigaugeExamples: Hill stations of north east region and ranges of Southern India.

In the urban areas, unorganized sector comprises workers in small scale industry, casual workers in construction, trade and transport etc. It also includes street vendors, head load workers, garment markers, rag pickers etc.

Workers in this sector need protection from overexploitation, differential treatment because of belonging to SC and ST.

Communalism is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community. All the followers of one religion belong to one community and their basic interests are the same. It is interpreted negatively when a  group following a particular religion sees its interest as mutually hostile and antagonistic with that of another religious group.  Thus, it severs as a threat of the harmony and secular spirit of a country and is a major hindrance to democracy.

The Zollverein was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories.

Otto von Bismarck played an important role in the unification of the country. He is known for his policy of 'Blood and Iron'.
Otto von Bismarck and the German unification:

1. The middle-class Germans in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state.
2. Otto von Bismarck; the chief minister of Prussia, was the architect of this process.
3. He took the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy in his endeavour.
4. Three wars were fought over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France. The wars ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification.
5. The Prussian king, William I was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles on 18th January 1871 in the presence of important officials, army representatives and Otto von Bismarck.

In the aftermath of Columbus’ discovery of America, foods like chillies, groundnuts, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, soya, and potatoes came to Asia and Europe from America.

1. In most societies, occupations are passed on from one generation to another. Caste system is an extreme form of this.
2. Members of the same caste group were supposed to form a social community that practiced the same or similar occupation, married within the caste group and did not eat with the members from other caste groups.
3. Caste system was based on exclusion of and discrimination against the outcaste groups.
4. They were subjected to the inhuman practice of untouchability.

The constituton provided distribution of legislative powers into the following organs:

1. Union List: Subjects of national importance like defense, foreign affairs, atomic energy, banking, post and telegraph are included in the Union List. Only the central government can pass laws on the subjects mentioned in the union list because we need a uniform policy on important or national issues throughout the country. The union list has 97 subjects.
2. State List: It comprises the important subjects on which the state government can pass laws. Subjects like police, local government, trade and commerce, agriculture are within the state included in the State list. The state list has 66 subjects.
3. Concurrent List: The concurrent list comprises the subjects which are of common concern both to the centre and state government. However if there is a conflict between the central law and state law, over a subject in the Concurrent list, the central law would be effective. The concurrent list has 47 subjects.
4. Residuary Powers: Matters which are not included in the division of powers are known as residuary powers. It was felt that there can be subjects which are not mentioned in either of these lists. The central government has been given the power to legislate on the residuary subjects.

The calorie needs vary depending on ***, age and type of work that a person does.

Nationalism and the idea of the nation-state emerged within the culturally and regionally diverse groups of Europe. Due to industrialization and transformation of society there emerged a middle class consisting of businessmen, working professionals, industrialists, labourers and working class people. Out of these, the educated people thought of uniting the culturally compatible sections of people in Europe. This led to nationalism and emergence of the idea of the nation-state.