People who are part of the workforce are called human resource. By contributing in productivity, the human resource plays a significant role in the economy of a country. Any other resource becomes useful only because of the input by the human resource.

The British government developed modern means of transport and communication for economic exploitation, administrative convenience and military defense. A large network of roads was constructed followed by the laying down of the first railway line in 1853, linking Mumbai with Thane. In subsequent years, a large network of railway lines was laid across vast areas of the Indian hinterland. Besides encouraging trade and commerce, it also made it easier for political activists to travel across the country. The development of the modern postal system and the introduction of telegraph also helped to unify the country to a great extent. Both these effectively revolutionised the process of information transmission and communication and helped Indians come in greater contact with one another.

(a) The war created a new economic and political situation.
(b) it led to huge increase in defense expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes, custom duties were raised and income tax was introduced.
(c) Prices increased, doubling between 1913-18. This hit the common people.
(d) Villagers were asked to supply soldiers and through force recruitment in rural areas.
(e) During 1918-19, crops failed in many parts of India which created shortage of food.(f) Spread of influenza epidemic and 12 to 13 million people died.

Stock :

1) Resources that exists but have not been utilized owing to lack of technical expertise.

2) Eg:Making hydrogen and oxygen from water.

Reserves :

1) Resources for whose utilization man has the technical know-how but has not started using them.

2) Eg: Uses of river water for generating electricity.

During the 'Age of Revolution', the first insurrection took place in France in July 1830. The Bourbon dynasty, restored during the conservative reaction after 1815, was overthrown by liberal revolutionaries. In its place, a constitutional moarchy with Louis Philippe at is head was installed. This 'July Revolution' led to another insurrection in Brussels and led to Begium becoming independent from the control of the Kingdom of Netherlands. Even before these events, it had been witnessed that France was the political nervecentre of the rest of Europe. Ever since the French Revolution, the political developments in France had direct impact on the rest of the European continent. Hence Metternich said 'When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold'.

• People belonging to one language community such as French, German and Dutch irrespective of where they live elects the community government in Belgium.
• The king is the head as well as the prime minister of the state in Belgium.
• It forms a federal, democratic and constitutional monarchy.

Manufacturing industries are considered the backbone of a country’s economic development due to the following reasons:

1. Apart from modernising agriculture by manufacturing various agricultural tools, they have reduced the heavy dependence of the people on agriculture.
2. They have helped in the reduction in poverty and unemployment in the country by providing job opportunities to millions of people.
3. Manufacturing industries have brought in much needed foreign exchange by exporting goods.
4. These industries by transforming raw materials into finished goods have led to an increased prosperity of India. 

Following were the participants of the Civil Disobedience Movement:
1. The rich peasant communities in the countryside such as the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were active in organizing their communities and sometimes forcing reluctant members to participate in the programmes. A drastic fall in prices and the impact of trade depression led to a fall in cash income for these communities. The problems further increased with the government's refusal of lowering down revenue demands. Overall, for them, the struggle for Swaraj was the fight against high revenues.
2. The poor peasantry was another group that participated in a variety of radical movements led by socialists and communists ranging from reduction in revenue demand to the cancellation of the unpaid rent to the landlord. As the trade depression continued and cash income dropped, they also faced problems relating to the payment of rent to the landlords.
3. The business classes participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement reacted against the colonial policies that restricted business activities. Their demands ranging from protection against imports of foreign goods to a rupee-sterling exchange ratio resulted in the formation of Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (1920) and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (1927), led by prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G.D. Birla. Giving financial assistance and refusing to buy and sell imported goods, they saw the movement as an opportunity for the trade and industry to flourish away from colonial constraints.
4. The participation of the industrial working class was overall minimal, except the Nagpur region. Thousands of workers in the Chota Nagpur tin mines wore Gandhian caps and participated in rallies and boycott campaigns. Movements against foreign goods, low wages, and poor working conditions were held. The railway workers and dock workers also organized strikes in 1930 and 1932 respectively.
5. Women participants, as part of the civil disobedience, were in large no.'s. In urban areas, women usually came from high caste families and in rural areas, they were from rich peasant households. During the salt march, thousands of women listened to Gandhiji and took part in protests, manufactured salt and picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops. They increasingly saw their service towards nation as a sacred duty.

Three tier system :
1. Union Government
2. State Governments
3. Local Governments.
Steps :
• Now, it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to the local government bodies.
• Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and the Backward Classes.
• At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
• An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each state to conduct free and fair elections for the panchayat and the municipalities.
• The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with the Local government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from state to state.

The Shikaripuri shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars of India were amongst the many groups of bankers and traders who financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia, using either their own funds or those borrowed from European banks.
They had a sophisticated system to transfer money over large distances, and even developed indigenous forms of corporate organisation.

Indian traders and moneylenders also followed European colonisers into Africa. The Hyderabadi Sindhi traders, however, ventured beyond European colonies, and established flourishing emporia at busy ports worldwide. From the 1860s, they began selling local and imported curios to tourists whose numbers were beginning to swell, thanks to the development of safe and comfortable passenger vessels.

A bonded labourer under contract to work for an employer for a specific amount of time, to pay off his passage to a new country or home is called an Indentured labourer.
Indentured labour migration from India illustrates the two-sided nature of the nineteenth-century world. It was a world of faster economic growth as well as great misery, higher incomes for some and poverty for others, technological advances in some areas and new forms of coercion in others.
In the nineteenth century, hundreds of thousands of Indian and Chinese labourers went to work on plantations, in mines, and in road and railway construction projects around the world. In India, indentured labourers were hired under contracts which promised return travel to India after they had worked five years on their employer’s plantation.
Most Indian indentured workers came from the present-day regions of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu. In the mid-nineteenth century these regions experienced many changes – cottage industries declined, land rents rose, lands were cleared for mines and plantations. All this affected the lives of the poor: they failed to pay their rents, became deeply indebted and were forced to migrate in search of work.
The main destinations of Indian indentured migrants were the Caribbean islands
Indentured workers were also recruited for tea plantations in Assam.
Many migrants agreed to take up work hoping to escape poverty or oppression in their home villages. But soon labourers found conditions to be different from what they had imagined. Living and working conditions were harsh, and there were few legal rights.
The workers discovered their own ways of surviving. Many of them escaped into the wilds, though if caught they faced severe punishment. Others developed new forms of individual and collective self expression, blending different cultural forms, old and new.
These forms of cultural fusion are part of the making of the global world, where things from different places get mixed, lose their original characteristics and become something entirely new.

Political parties are the most visible instruments of bringing a change in a specific democratic country. Most of the ordinary citizens identify with popular political parties. For example- if we travel to the remote parts or villages of a country and speak to the less educated people, we would come to know that although they do not know anything about the government or the constitution they do identify with party symbols.
 2. Political parties are crucial institutions of a democracy which perform a variety of functions in the smooth working of a country. They are composed of leaders, active members, and their followers.
3. Governments at various levels such as the national or state level are formed through the election process wherein different political parties compete to exercise political power.
4. Parties play a crucial role in putting forward their policies and programmes for the welfare of the general public.
5. Political parties are also involved in the process of decision making. Since most of the members of the legislature belong to different parties, they tend to influence decision making by going in the direction of the party adership.

Four characteristics of commercial farming in India are

1. High quantities of fertilisers, high yield variety seeds, insecticides and pesticides are used to enhance the productivity of land.
2. The degree and extent of commercialised agriculture varies from region to region. For example, wheat in Punjab is a commercial crop, while in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop.
3. Plantation is also a kind of commercial farming where a single crop is grown over a large area.
4. In commercial farming, crops are grown for earning profits. Some of the cash crops are tea, coffee, rubber etc. 

• Most of the political parties keep the caste calculation in mind while fielding a candidate from a particular constituency.
• Each caste group is trying to get a bigger pie of the political power by asserting its identity in various ways.
• Since there are so many castes, hence various caste groups have also evolved their own coalition to get leverage in political bargaining.
• The caste groups can be broadly divided into ‘backward’ and ‘forward’.
• Exclusive attention to caste can produce negative results. Caste divisions often lead to social conflict and even violence.

Liberty: Every citizen should have freedom to live a dignified life and should have liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.

On 25 March 1815, The Treaty of Vienna concluded which was the legal recognition of the allied authorities   Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, and Russia empowering them to prosecute the war upon Napoleon till the time he was overthrown.

The main aim of the treaty of Vienna ( 1815) was to generate long term peace plan for Europe .

The three main aspects of the economic reforms in India are:

• Liberalization – where the government changed several economic policies to create an environment of freedom for economic decision-making.
• Privatization – the government had reserved 17 industries for the public sector. It gave 11 out of these to the private sector.
• Globalization – Both liberalization and privatization of the public sector enterprises led to the globalization of the Indian economy.