Before the middle of the nineteenth century, the countries in Europe were not in the form as we know them today. Different regions in Europe were ruled by various multi-national dynastic empires. These were monarchies which enjoyed absolute power over their subjects. Various technological and the ensuing social changes helped in developing the ideas of nationalism. The process of creation of nation states began in 1789; with the French Revolution. It took about hundred years for the idea to gain concrete shape which resulted in the formation of France as a democratic nation state. The trend was followed in other parts of the Europe and led to the establishment of the modern democratic systems in most parts of the world; at the beginning of 20th century.

The French thought colonies to be necessary because these suppliedwestern countries raw materials and other goods and commodities to mother governement. France also thought that it was the mission of the western countries to civilise the 'primitive' and 'backward' people of the east.

Gomasthas were the officials of the East India Company. They were mainly recruited to supervise, collect supplies and check the quality of cloth woven by the Indian weavers.

But, there were frequent clashes between the Indian weavers and gomasthas because of the following reasons:

1. Gomasthas were very arrogant. They even beat the Indian weavers and whipped them. They came with sepoys.

2. The weavers were paid meager prices for their goods. They could not bargain for their costs. They were not able to sell it to other different buyers instead.

3. Moreover, the Gomasthas were outsiders. Earlier, the brokers were the people who lived in the same villages as the weavers, took care of them and helped them when they were in need. But these Gomasthas punished the weavers if there is any delay in supply.

4. The East India company gave loans to the weavers to purchase the raw materials while placing the order. The loans that were taken by the Indian weavers from the East India Company put them in a pitiable situation that they had to give their finished goods to Gomasthas who punished them for the delay in supply.

Thus, the appointment of Gomasthas led to clashes.

In the cotton and textile industry the yarn consumed by a certain mode of production is called loomage. Total yarn consumed by mills is called mill loomage. Power and hand loomage refer to the total yarn consumed by those modes of production respectively.

It is important to keep the mill sector loomage lower than the powerloom and handloom in India, as the latter are used by the cottage industries. They provide income to the economically deprived sections of society. If the mill sector consumes more yarn then the individual weavers who depend on powerlooms and handlooms for their sustenance will be out of work. Keeping the mill sector loomage low helps the poor weavers to earn and face the competition with the mass products.

The powerloom and handloom will help to provide employment in the rural areas and reduce the migration of villagers to the cities.

1) Higher Per Capita Income
2) Higher HDI
3) Higher standard of living
4) Most of the population have acccess to basic health care facilities

Roadways have an edge over railways in India because of the following reasons -
1. The cost of constructing roads is much lower than that of the railways. Therefore, they prove to be cost effective.
2. Roads can traverse more dissected and undulating topography in comparison to railways. They can also negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas.
3. Road transport is economical in transporting few persons and relatively small amount of goods over short distances.
 4. Roadways tend to provide door-to-door service, and therefore the cost of loading and unloading is much lower.
 5. The system of road transportation increasingly provides a link to other modes of transport such as they provide a link between railway stations, air and sea ports.

1. Basic or key industries: These industries supply their product or raw materials to manufacture other goods; e.g., iron and steel, copper smelting and aluminium smelting.
2. Consumer industries: These are the industries that produce goods for direct use by consumers; e.g., sugar, toothpaste, paper, sewing machines, fans, etc.

 The British government's decision to abolish the Corn Laws led to the losses for the agricultural sector but proven advantage for the industrial sector. Food was available at lower prizes into Britain by importing but it led to the unemployment in thousands of cultivation workers became.

HVJ is the 1700 km long gas pipeline that is known as Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur pipeline.
It is important for India because it links Mumbai high and Bassein with the Western and Northern India. This pipeline acts as an artery to provide power to fertiliser industries and for other commercial uses<button aria-label="like this post" title="like this post">
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a. The worldwide economic depression began in 1929 and there after impacted World economies including India,towards late 1920's not 1820's.

The effects of the World Wide depression on India were:

a. Agricultural prices began to fall and collapsed in 1930.
b. Demand for agricultural goods declined.
c. It became difficult for the peasants to sell their harvest and pay revenue.
d. The entire country was in crisis. 
e. It helped in reshaping the national movement.

Small scale industries use lesser amount of capital and technology as compared to large scale industries. Large scale industries produce large volumes of products. Investment of capital is higher, and the technology used is superior.

Silk weaving and food processing industries are examples of small scale industries.

Production of automobiles and heavy machinery are examples of large scale industries. 

A Nation State refers to a country with well defined delineated boundaries, resided by people with a similar culture, shared history and ethnic character. It is also supposed to have a government of its choice. The people in a Nation State are supposed to have unity, strength and cooperation.

The political conditions of Europe as follows :

(i) The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe.
(ii) In most countries, there were more job seekers than employment. Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
(iii) Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine made goods from England, where industrialisation was more advanced than on the continent.
(iv) In these regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.
(v) The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

Liberalisation means the opening of the country for foreign investments and capitals.  Trade barriers are often used by countries to protect the domestic industries from the products of foreign land. Usually countries resort to impose Licenses, Import quotas or Voluntary export restraints to protect local markets.
The Globalisation has impacted Indian economy in the following ways
(i) Increase in foreign investment, Over the past twenty years, the foreign investment has increased.
(ii) Emergence of Indian companies as multinational Several of the top Indian companies like Tata Motors, Infosys, Ranbaxy have been able to get benefit from the increased competition created as a result of Globalisation.
(iii) Creation of new opportunities Globalisation has created new opportunities for Indian companies, particularly providing services like IT.
(iv) Creation of new jobs For those which are Globalisation has created new jobs and has helped in reducing unemployment rate to an extent.
(v) A host of services such as data entry, accounting, administrative tasks, engineering are now being done cheaply in India.

1. It protects the interest of citizens : As previously stated, the citizens in a democratic country are given the right to vote on political, social and economical issues, particularly the representatives they want to be in charge of making major decisions, such as the president. This can greatly protect the people from anything they would disagree to occur.
2. It prevents monopoly of authority :Due to the fact that the government is bound by an election term where parties compete to regain authority, democracy prevents monopoly of the ruling authority. And, the elected ruling party would make sure their policies will work for the people, as they will not be able to remain in power after their term with bad records—they will not be re-elected.
3. It promotes equality : Generally, democracy is based on the rule of equality, which means that all people are equal as far as the law is concerned. Every person has the right to experience and enjoy equal political, social and economic rights, and the state is not allowed to discriminate him on the standard of ***, class, religion and property.
4. It makes for a responsible and stable administration :When there are elected and fixed representatives, a more responsible government is formed. Thus, democracy can be efficient, firm and stable. Its administration is ruled and conducted with a sense of dedication, and people under this system discuss matters and problems thoroughly to come up with sensible decisions.
5. It brings a feeling of obligation towards the citizens: The ruling authorities owe their success to elections by the citizens, so they would feel grateful to and socially responsible for them. This can serve as their motivating factor to work for the citizens, for they have the right of choosing their government.

Through the 17th and 18th centuries literacy rates went up in most parts of Europe, and by the end of 18th century it was as high as 60 to 80 per cent. As literacy rates went up , there was a virtual reading mania.

1)New forms of literature appeared in print, targeting new audiences. A children's press was set up in France in 1857 devoted to children alone. The Grimm Brothers collected and compiled traditional folk tales. 

2)Women became both important readers and writers. Penny magazines were specially meant for women. Prominent women novelists were Jane Austen, the Bronte Sisters and George Eliot. Their novel defined a new type of women - a person with will, strength, personality and power to think.

3)Leading libraries in England became instrumental for the middle and lower classes. After shortening of work hours, workers had time for self-improvement and self-expression. They wrote about politics and autobiography.

Sustainable development.: A process of development that does not cause environment degradation and therefore, does not reduce production capacity of future generations..

It depends on factors...

* Sustained raise in Real per capita income...

* Rational use of natural resources..

* Ability of production to future generations