Over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging which leads to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil. Over-irrigation is a major problem in states of Haryana, Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh but not in Rajasthan. Over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to waterlogging which leads to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.

Land is considered an important resource because it is being used by human beings for several purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses and roads, and setting up industries. Also, it provides habitation to a variety of flora and fauna. Hence, it is among the most important natural resources. Land resources mean the resources available from the land, thus the agricultural land which contain natural fertilizer for growth of the products sown; the underground water, the various minerals like coal, bauxite, gold and other raw materials. Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. All living things require water to grow and reproduce. Water occurs naturally in the environment and is useful to humans and other living organisms. Hence it is a natural resource.

Economic development is the growth of the standard of living of a nations people from a low-income (poor) economy to a high-income (rich) economy. When the local quality of life is improved, there is more economic development. When social scientists study economic development, they look at a lot of things. Economic development is a process of targeted activities and programs that work to improve the economic wellbeing and quality of life of a community by building local wealth, diversifying the economy, creating and retaining jobs, and building the local tax base.

The 1848 revolution of the liberals refers to the discontent and various national movements pioneered by educated middle classes alongside the revolts of the poor, unemployed and starving peasants and workers in Europe. While in countries like France, food shortages and widespread unemployment during 1848 led to popular uprisings, in other parts of Europe (such as Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire), men and women of the liberal middle classes came together to voice their demands for the creation of nation-states based on parliamentary principles. The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were:

• Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification, a nation-state with a written constitution and parliamentary administration. They wanted to establish individual freedom and equality before the law and equal political rights.
• Socially, they wanted to rid society of its class-based partialities and birthrights. Serfdom and bonded labour had to be abolished.The Issue of political rights to women also was a social issue. Liberal also stressed the inviolability of private property.
• Economically they demanded freedom of markets and right to property. Abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.

Culturable Waste Land includes land available for cultivation, whether taken up or not taken up for cultivation once, but not cultivated during the last five years or more in succession including the current year for some reason or the other .

A fallow field is land that a farmer plows but does not cultivate for one or more seasons to allow the field to become more fertile again. The practice of leavingfields fallow dates back to ancient times when farmers realized that using soil over and over again depleted its nutrients.

The two principels of development are

•     Development is linked with the desire to improve the present condition .
•     Development involves thinking about the ways in which we works towards achieving our desire goal.

The main features of 'Boycott Movement' and 'Swadeshi Movement' are as follows:
1. To non-cooperate with the British government and make it collapse.
2. To boycot or cut out buying Brirish goods made in our country.
3. To create India's own goods and buying those only. eg. khadi.(swadeshi goods)
4. To protest the ruling British government and shouting slogans such as 'swatantra Bharat' etc.

India a federal country because of the following reasons:

• There are levels of governments—Central Government, State Government and Local Government.
• Each level of government administers over the same region, but they have their own jurisdiction in matters of administration, taxation and legislation.
• The Government at each level derives its power from the Constitution of the country. Thus, the Central Government cannot easily dilute the powers of the State or Local Governments.
• The basic principles of the Constitution and the rights given to the people cannot be changed by only one tier of the Government. It requires the consent of governments at both levels.
• Both levels of the Government can collect taxes from the people according to the guidelines of the Constitution of the country.
• The Indian Constitution contains three lists which contain subjects in which the Union and the State Governments may form laws. Only central government can make laws in the Union List and state government in the state list. Subjects related to the interests of both Central and State Governments are included in the concurrent list.

This statement is given by Mahatma Gandhi: 

(i) It means that the earth has abundant resources to satisfy everyone’s needs but in our greed and hurry to develop, we have been recklessly exploiting these resources. 

(ii) In the name of development, we have indulged in activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, encroachment into forest lands, overuse of ground water, use of plastics, etc. 

(iii) The exploitation of natural resources not only harms the environment but may cripple the future generations of the development process itself. 

(iv) If fossil fuels are exhausted, the development of all countries would be at risk. 

(v) Thus, there is a need for conservation and judicious use of resources for development.

The Functions of Political Parties.Political parties perform an importanttask in government. They bring people together to achieve control of thegovernment, develop policies favorable to their interests or the groups that support them, and organize and persuade voters to elect their candidates to office.

•     Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of country. This involves surveying, mapping etc.
•     Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology , skill and institutional setup for implementing resource development plans.
•     Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans because of the spread of ideas of romantic nationalism as also the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire that had previously ruled over this area. The different Slavic communities in the Balkans began to strive for independent rule. They were jealous of each other and every state wanted more territory, even at the expense of others. Also, the hold of imperial power over the Balkans made the situation worse. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary all wanted more control over this area. These conflicts ultimately led to the First World War in 1914.

• Giuseppe Garibaldi was a Italian general ,politician .
• He helped Piedmont to fight over Austria and win the war.
• He believed that Italy speaking people should be united.
• The Italians should have a one territory. He always believed in being a great country by unification.
• He also boosted the unification by his words in front of newspapers.

The Congress of Vienna. The Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815 by the four European powers which had defeated Napoleon. The first goal was to establish a new balance of power in Europe which would prevent imperialism within Europe, such as the Napoleonic empire, and maintain the peace between the great powers.

(i) They introduced the ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and Ie citoyen (the citizen), emphasizing the concept of a united community enjoying equal rights under a Constitution.

(ii) They choose a new French flag, the tricolour, to replace the royal standard.
(iii) The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.

The French Revolution which took place in 1789 had various impact on Europe
(i) The revolution led to the setting up of Jacobin Clubs in different cities of Europe by students and other members of educated middle classes. It further paved the way for the French armies to moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland and some parts of Italy in the 1790s. The idea of nationalism began to be carried by French armies.
(ii) Another impact of the revolution was the rise of Napoleon. He took several steps to reform the economy of Europe. The most important among them was the civil code of 1804 which brought the concept of equality of law and uniform laws.
(iii) The main aim of the French Revolutionaries was to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism. They wanted to help other people of Europe to become nations.

A Nation State refers to a country with well defined delineated boundaries, resided by people with a similar culture, shared history and ethnic character. It is also supposed to have a government of its choice. The people in a Nation State are supposed to have unity, strength and cooperation.

The idea of power sharing has emerged in opposition to the notions of undivided political power. For a long time, it was believed that all powers of a government must reside in one person or group of persons located at one place. It was felt that if the power to decide is dispersed, it would not be possible to take quick decisions and to enforce them. But these notions have changed with the emergence of democracy.

There was conflict between catholic and protestant church. As Belgium was country like India which have diverse population of all kinds of religion people .those were different on language which were France , Germany,etc.

A unitary system of government is a government where political power is centralized at the national level. In a federal system, political power is decentralized and split between the national government and governmental subunits, such as states or provinces. Power is shared by a powerful central government and states or provinces that are given considerable self-rule, usually through their own legislatures. Examples: The United States, Australia, the Federal Republic of Germany.

Formation : Most of the red soils have come into existence due to weathering of ancient crystalline igneous rocks. Characteristics / Features :
(i) Soils are loamy in deep depressions and in uplands. They consist of loose gravels and highly coarse materials.
(ii) The colour of these soils is generally red, often grading into brown, chocolate or yellow. The red colour is due to wide diffusion rather than high percentage of iron content. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
(iii) Soils are deficient in phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous materials but are fairly rich in potash. But crops are cultivated with the use of fertilizers.

Formation : Most of the red soils have come into existence due to weathering of ancient crystalline igneous rocks. Characteristics / Features :
(i) Soils are loamy in deep depressions and in uplands. They consist of loose gravels and highly coarse materials.
(ii) The colour of these soils is generally red, often grading into brown, chocolate or yellow. The red colour is due to wide diffusion rather than high percentage of iron content. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
(iii) Soils are deficient in phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous materials but are fairly rich in potash. But crops are cultivated with the use of fertilizers.