Nationalism did not exist in Europe in the Middle Ages because at that time the European countries were ruled by monarchs and people were loyal to their king and not to their country. There was a lack of a strong national government. The concept of a ‘nation’ was absent then. It emerged only in the modern era after the emergence of the principles of democracy, liberty equality and fraternity.

The limitations of the barter system:

(i)Lack of Double Coincidence of Wants: Barter system can work only when both buyer and seller are ready to exchange each other’s goods.

(ii)Lack of Common Measure of Value: In the barter system, all commodities are not of equal value and there is no common measure (unit) of value of goods and services, in which exchange ratios can be expressed. 

(iii)Lack of Standard of Deferred Payment: The borrower may not be able to arrange goods of exactly same quality at the time of repayment.

Money overcomes the problem of barter system by replacing the C-C economy with monetary economy (where 'C stands for commodity).
(i) In the barter system, there was a problem of double coincidence of wants. It was very difficult to match the expectations of two different individuals. Thus, money was invented to overcome the problem of double . coincidence of wants.
(ii) When there was no money, it was difficult to give common unit of value to goods or commodities, but when money was evolved, it gave a common unit of value to every goods and services.
(iii) Money facilitates the contractual future payments which were impossible at the time of barter system.

Basic industries are those which supply their raw materials to industries which manufacture other goods. An example is the iron and steel industry which supplies steel to the automobile industry.

When power is taken away from Central and State Governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation. A major step towards decentralisation was taken after the amendment of Constitution in 1992.
The different provisions are
(i) It is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to govemment’bodies.
(ii) Seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
(iii) At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women.
(iv) The State Election Commission (SEC) has been created in each state to conduct Panchayat and Municipal election.

Government has made concerted efforts to ensure the increase in agricultural production since 1951.
(i) Abolition of Zamindari system.
(ii) Ceiling on landholdings where maximum limit towards ownership was fixed by government.
(iii) Consolidation of small landholdings into a large one where mechanisation is possible.
(iv) Introduction of any insurance to provide security against failure of crops.
(v) Opening up of rural banks and cooperative societies to provide credit to the farmers at a low interest.
(vi) Announcement of minimum support price to prevent any exploitation of farmers.
(vii) Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers were introduced through mass media.

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Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of the process of unification who  carried out the process with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy.

a. Bismarck helped in instilling a sense of nationalism among the masses.

b. Prussia, under his leadership entered into three wars for over seven years for national unification, which resulted in Prussian victory.

c. Bismarck helped in proclaiming the new German empire headed by William Kaiser I of Prussia.

Prince Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck was the mastermind of German Unification and was the first chancellor of the united nation. Bismarck caused Germany to transform from a loose net of 39 states into the strongest industrial nation of Europe. The unification of Germany had a tremendous impact on European balance of powers for the rest of history. For nearly 30 years Bismarck dominated Germany and European politics.

Money has made transactions easy in the following way
(i) It solves the problem of double coincidence of wants by acting as a medium of exchange.
(ii) Double coincidence of wants implies a situation where two parties agree to sell and buy each other’s commodities, i.e. what one party desires to sell is exactly what die other party wishes to buy.
(iii) Money does away this tedious and complex situadon by acting as a medium of exchange that can be used for all commodities.
For example, if an ice-cream vendor wants a bicycle but the bicycle manufacturer wants clothes and not ice-creams, then the vendor can use money to obtain the bicycle.
(iv) With the help of money ice-cream vendar needs not to adhere to the bicycle manufacturer’s needs because money acts as the common medium ofexehange. Similarly, the bicycle manufacturer can then use the money to buy clothes.

Following the Kandyan Wars, the island was united under British rule in 1815. ... Independence was finally granted in 1948 but the country remained a Dominion of the British Empire until 1972. In 1972 Sri Lanka assumed the status of a Republic. Sri Lankan English (SLE, en-LK) or Ceylonese English (similar and related to British English) is the English language as it is used in Sri Lanka.

The colonial government took brutal steps to repress the Civil Disobedience Movement.

1) The government began arresting the congress leaders one by one. This led to violent clashes in many places.

2) Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi was arrested (April 1930) as a result of which angry crowds protested on the streets of Peshawar.

The economic outcomes of democracy are:

• It helps in eradication of various programmes and policies that are not beneficial for the people of the country.
• Though, economic development in democracies  is not as high as dictatorship, however, it does help in reduction of economic disparities in a country.
• Also, there are various factors that affect the economic growth of the country like population size, global situation, cooperation from other countries, economic priorities of the country, etc.

Territorial water refers to an area of water over which a state has its jurisdiction. The territorial sea extends to a limit of 12 nautical miles from the baseline of a coastal zone.

Territorial water refers to an area of water over which a state has its jurisdiction. The territorial sea extends to a limit of 12 nautical miles from the baseline of a coastal zone.

It is a belt of coastal waters extends upto 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the baseline of a coastal state. The territorial sea is regarded as the sovereign territory of the nation. The resources therein belong to the nation.

For tea production -
Tea is a favorite drink all over the world today.
India is the largest producer and exporter of tea in the world. The ideal climatic conditions for the production and growing of tea are as follows:
Temperature: 21°C to 29°C is ideal for the production of tea. High temperature is required in summer. The lowest temperature for the growth of tea is 16°C.Rainfall: 150-250 cm of rainfall is required for tea cultivation.Soil: Tea shrubs require fertile mountain soil mixed with lime and iron. The soil should be rich in humus.Land: Tea cultivation needs well drained land. Stagnation of water is not good for tea plants. Heavy rainfall but no stagnancy of water, such mountain slopes are good for tea cultivation.

A huge number of women labors along with plywood, packing box industry, factory sheds etc., are required for tea cultivation.
And for coffee production -
Coffee is the second most popular beverage of India. Its cultivation is confined in South India. Favorable Geographical Conditions for the Cultivation: Coffee is grown on the tropical highlands. Coffee is a typical highland crop of the Tropics. It requires temperature between 16 degree C and 28 degree C all the year round. It is sensitive to cold and frost. Direct sunrays are injurious to the plant; it is often grown in the shades of other trees. The coffee plant needs a rainfall ranging between 125 cm and 200 cm. The rainfall should be well distributed throughout the year. Hilly slopes are suitable for coffee plantation; because, the land can be kept free from water logging. In fact, the mountain slopes at elevations varying from 500-1800 meters in the tropical highlands are the best for its plantation. The coffee plant needs deep loamy soil formed from weathered lava. Coffee soils in India belong to red and later tic soils. They are rich in iron and organic matter. Coffee cultivation needs plenty of labor for planting, seeding transplanting, plucking the coffee cherries, and processing of coffee in the factory. In India, most of the coffee grown, belongs to the Arabic or the Roberta verities. T
 

Jacobin Club was one of the most important club during the french revolution.It consist of less prosperous people of the third estate. Many Jacobin started to wear long strip clothes similar worn by dock workers to set them apart from the fashionable section of society especially nobles who wear knee benchers.It was rule by Maximilian Robespierre.He rule in France from 1793-1794. And his reign is known as Reign of Terror.

India a federal country because of the following reasons:

• There are levels of governments—Central Government, State Government and Local Government.
• Each level of government administers over the same region, but they have their own jurisdiction in matters of administration, taxation and legislation.
• The Government at each level derives its power from the Constitution of the country. Thus, the Central Government cannot easily dilute the powers of the State or Local Governments.
• The basic principles of the Constitution and the rights given to the people cannot be changed by only one tier of the Government. It requires the consent of governments at both levels.
• Both levels of the Government can collect taxes from the people according to the guidelines of the Constitution of the country.
• The Indian Constitution contains three lists which contain subjects in which the Union and the State Governments may form laws. Only central government can make laws in the Union List and state government in the state list. Subjects related to the interests of both Central and State Governments are included in the concurrent list.

Count Cavour was known as the Bismarck of Italy.

In commercial farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in the market that is for commercial purposes while in subsistence farming crops r grown mainly for the farmers family needs.. in commercial farming the area cultivated and the amount of capital invested is large

1) The Poona Pact (of September 1932) gave Depressed Classes (later to be known as Scheduled caste) reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils. 
2) They were to be voted in by the general electorate. 
3) The act came into force due to Gandhiji s fast unto death. 
4) Ambedkar ultimately accepted Gandhiji s stand.