Information Technology (IT) has played a major role in spreading out production of services. For example, a news magazine published for London readers is to be designed and printed in Delhi.

There are three types of party systems:

•  One-Party System
• Two-Party System
• Multi-Party System

The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution  Second French Revolution or Trois Glorieuses in French ("Three Glorious [Days]"), saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who himself, after 18 precarious years on the throne, would in turn be overthrown in 1848. It marked the shift from one constitutional monarchy, under the restored House of Bourbon, to another, the July Monarchy; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch, the House of Orléans; and the replacement of the principle of hereditary right by popular sovereignty. Supporters of the Bourbon would be called Legitimists, and supporters of Louis Philippe Orléanists.
 

The Greek War of Independence is also called the Greek Revolution. It took place between 1821 and 1832. It was fought against the Ottoman Empire. The Russian Empire, Great Britain, Kingdom of France and many other European powers helped them in their efforts. The Eyalets of Egypt, Algeria and Tripolitania, and the Beylik of Tunis were on the side of the Ottomans.

The war went on for 8 years, 6 months and 3 weeks. It took place in the Balkans and the Aegean Sea. Finally the Greek won. The First Hellenic Republic was established. The Treaty of Constantinople was signed.

Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded by wind and water. They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith, and high drainage density.  They can resemble malpaís, a terrain of volcanic rock. Canyons, ravines, gullies, buttes, mesas, hoodoos and other such geologic forms are common in badlands. They are often difficult to navigate by foot. Badlands often have a spectacular color display that alternates from dark black/blue coal stria to bright clays to red scoria

The system of checks and balances ensures that no one branch of the national government gains too much power. A system of checks and balance prevents any one branch of government from having a lot of power. All three branches of the government are kept in balance with a checks and balance system in place.
So that no governmental branch can have more power than the other.

Stock: Resources that are available, but we do not have proper technology to used them are called Stock. For example – water is made of oxygen and hydrogen, which can be used as fuel, but because of lack of proper technology these are not being used.

Average income, i.e., percapita incomeisan important but notthe only criterion for development. Along with average income, equitable distribution of income (i.e., people are neither very rich nor extremely poor) in a country should also be considered. If the national income is widely distributed among the people, It shows a better distribution of income. High per capita income combined with a better distribution of income is a good index of economic welfare.

Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable products, is called manufacturing.

German sword  stands for  Symbol of power, readiness to fight

Importance of manufacturing industry is as follows:

• It has helped in modernising agriculture by manufacturing tractors,  tools and machines used in cultivation.
• It has reduced employment pressure on agriculture
• It has brought in much needed foreign exchange
• It has expanded trade and commerce
• Manufacturing industries have helped in eradication of unemployment and poverty
• It has helped in the growth and boom in economy. 

The functions political parties perform in a democracy are:
1) Candidates are put forward by parties to contest in elections. These candidates may be chosen by the members of the party or by the leaders of the party.
2) Parties put forward different policies and programmes and the voters choose from them.
3) Parties play an important role in making laws for a country. Laws are usually debated and passed in the legislature.
4) Parties form and run governments. They recruit leaders and train them to be ministers and run the government in the way they want it.
5) Parties that lose the election form the opposition. The opposition voices different views and criticize the failures of the government.
6) Parties shape public opinion. They have lakhs of members all over the country, and they play a great role in influencing the way people think.

• It led to a huge increase in defence expenditure which was financed by war loans and increasing taxes
• customs duties were raised and income tax introduced.
• Through the war years prices increased - doubling between 1913 and 1918 - leading to extreme hardship for the common people.
• Villages were called upon to supply soldiers, and the forced recruitment in rural areas caused widespread anger.
• Then in 1918-19 and 1920-21, crops failed in many parts of India, resulting in acute shortages of food.
• This was accompanied by an influenza epidemic.
• According to the census of 1921, 12 to 13 million people perished as a result of famines and the epidemic.
• People hoped that their hardships would end after the war was over. But that did not happen.

Technical and economic development have led to more consumption of resources in the following ways:

• It provides equipments which increases production that lead to the consumption of more resources. Introduction of sophisticated machinery further helps in exploitation of resources.
• The economic development leads to the rise of the needs of people which results into more consumption of resources.
• Economic development provides favourable environment for the development of latest technologies which helps to convert various materials into resources.

The peasants joined the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) because poor peasantry were not just interested in the lowering of the revenue demand. Many had rented land. They could not pay rent because of the depression and dwindling cash incomes. They wanted the unpaid rent to landlord remitted. 

Congress could not give full support because they thought rich peasants and landlords would be upset. It was unwilling to support ‘no rent’ campaign in most places. So, the relationship between the poor peasants and the Congress remained uncertain.

The peasants joined the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34) because poor peasantry were not just interested in the lowering of the revenue demand. Many had rented land. They could not pay rent because of the depression and dwindling cash incomes. They wanted the unpaid rent to landlord remitted. 

Congress could not give full support because they thought rich peasants and landlords would be upset. It was unwilling to support ‘no rent’ campaign in most places. So, the relationship between the poor peasants and the Congress remained uncertain.

Dalit participation in Civil Disobedience Movement was limited:
1. Congress had ignored Dalits for a long time because they didn't want to offend the conservative high-caste Hindus.
2. But Gandhi wanted to eliminate untouchability. He called them children of God or Harijan and organized satyagraha to get them access to public wells, schools, and temples.
3. He himself cleaned toilets to respect the work of the bhangi and tried to persuade the upper caste to give up untouchability.
4. But many Dalit leaders believed only political empowerment can solve the problems faced by the community in the society.
5. They demanded separate electorates for the Dalit community in legislative councils and reserved seats in educational institutions. So Dalit participation was limited especially in the Maharashtra and Nagpur region.

The development of the German and Italian nation states in the nineteenth century

Political fragmentation: Till the middle of the nineteenth century, the present-day nations of Germany and Italy were fragmented into separate regions and kingdoms ruled by different princely houses. 

Revolutionary uprisings: Nineteenth-century Europe was characterised by both popular uprisings of the masses and revolutions led by the educated, liberal middle classes. The middle classes belonging to the different German regions came together to form an all-German National Assembly in 1848. However, on facing opposition from the aristocracy and military, and on losing its mass support base, it was forced to disband.

In the Italian region, during the 1830s, revolutionaries like Giuseppe Mazzini sought to establish a unitary Italian Republic. However, the revolutionary uprisings of 1831 and 1848 failed to unite Italy.

Unification with the help of the army: After the failure of the revolutions, the process of German and Italian unification was continued by the aristocracy and the army. Germany was united by the Prussian chief minister Otto von Bismarck  with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. The German empire was proclaimed in 1871.

The Italian state of Sardinia-Piedmont played a role similar to that played by Prussia. Count Camillo de Cavour (the Chief Minister) led the movement to unite the separate states of nineteenth-century Italy with the help of the army and an alliance with France. The regions annexed by Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts joined with the northern regions to form a united Italy. The italian nation was proclaimed in 1861. The papal states joined in 1870.