Human poverty is a concept that goes beyond the limited view of poverty as lack of income.
It refers to the denial of political, social and economic opportunities to an individual to maintain a ‘reasonable’ standard of living.
Illiteracy, lack of job opportunities, lack of access to proper healthcare and sanitation, caste and gender discrimination, etc are all components of human poverty.

A common method used to measure poverty is based on the income or consumption levels.The present criteria are based on a survey conducted in 2002. Going into a survey due for a decade, India's central government is undecided on criteria to identify families below poverty line. Internationally, an income of less than $1.90 per day per head of purchasing power parity is defined as extreme povertyBelow Poverty Line is an economic benchmark used by the government of India to indicate economic disadvantage and to identify individuals and households in need of government assistance and aid. It is determined using various parameters which vary from state to state and within states. The present criteria are based on a survey conducted in 2002. Going into a survey due for a decade, India's central government is undecided on criteria to identify families below poverty line.Above Poverty Line In India, a measure of persons who live above its nationally designated poverty threshold. India divides the poverty threshold into urban and rural areas. People in urban areas must meet higher monthly income minimums to be considered above the poverty line. The World Bank uses a more stringent poverty threshold than the Indian government

A river basin is the portion of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It encompasses all of the land surface dissected and drained by many streams and creeks that flow downhill into one another, and eventually into the Milwaukee River

The poverty line is estimated in India in following ways:

Income Method: A person is considered poor if his or her income falls below a given minimum level necessary to fulfil basic needs.

Consumption Method: A minimum nutrititioal food requirement for survival is estimated and energy obtained is measured in calories. The accepted average of calory requirement in India.

Expenditure Method: While determining the poverty line in India a minimum level of food requirement, clothing , footwear, fuel, and light , educational and medical requirement etc. Are determined for subsistence.

The HCPR is the percentage of the population under the poverty line. This means that it is the absolute poverty that is estimated in India. Poverty ratio is measured in terms of per capita consumption expenditure over a month.

The most familiar image of Mahatma Gandhi is of him seated, bare chested and in a short dhoti at the spinning wheel. He made spinning on the charkha and the daily use of khadi very popular. Khadi was important to Mahatma Gandhi because (i) Khadi was not only symbol of self-reliance to him but also of resistance to the use of British mill-made cloth. (ii) Khadi became a symbol of nationalism and a rejection of Western mill-made cloth. (iii) He believed in purity, simplicity and poverty and wearing khadi was a symbol of them.

public regular choice of political leaders through elections is one of the bases of. representative democracy, and the rationality of the public choices is a. measure of the meaningfulness of the democratic process. Electoral politics, the ideas and actions behind the process of choosing by vote among.

☆Lack of education ☆ Low level of economic development under colonialism ☆ Green revolution was limited to some areas ☆Increase in population ☆ High prices ☆ agricultural backwardness

●Rapidly Rising Population ●Low Productivity in Agriculture ●Under Utilized Resources ●Low Rate of Economic Development ●Price Rise ●Unemployment ●Shortage of Capital and Able ●Entrepreneurship ●Social Factors

1) Low level of the economic growth - The Indian economy is gighly underdevelopeddue to relative backwardness of agricultural and the industrial sectors. Due to these ine or two hidden factors nearly 25% of the population is still living below poverty line.
2) Population explosion - Rapid growth of population, mainly among the poor and the poorest of the poor is highly responsible for the poverty on largescale in our country as by this the per capita income is going low.
3) Poor state of agiculture - Agriculture in India has continued to be backward due to the use of primitive methods of production ad fragmented land holdings. As a result labour and land productivity continues to be low in India.
4) High Illeteracy rate - The weaker sections of the society have to take up lo paid jobs due to the lack of knowledge. The SC's and ST's are not able to pariticipate in the emerging employment opportunities in different sectors of the urban and rural economy as they do not have the necessary knowledge and skills to do so.
5) Inequalities in income - The unequal distribution of the incomes and assets has also led to the persistence of poverty in India.

European Dress Code	Indian Dress Code
1. Europeans used to wear hats which were removed before social superiors as a sign of respect.	1.Indians used to wear turbans to protect them from the heat. It was a symbol of respect and could not be removed at will.
2. The dress code in Europe was influenced by a persons economic and social status.	2. The dress code in India was influenced and followed by the casts system.

Since the economy of Russia was suffering due to civil war, a process of centralized planning was introduced. There were targets set for five years assessing how the economy may work. These five year plans did boost up the economy. Industrial production increased between 1929 and 1933. New factories were established. However, this rapid construction led to poor working conditions.

• Opposition to an economic system based on inequality and on the alienation and exploitation of the majority (by means of the system of wage labor), a system whose purpose is to obtain profits for some people rather than satisfying the needs of all. This describes capitalism, but one can obviously imagine other systems that would present similar essential characteristics, to which Marxists would be equally opposed.

For the transformation of society, Marxism considers that a revolutionary process that will lead to a society based on cooperation and the free distribution of goods and provision of services is necessary.

• “The emancipation of the workers must be the task of the workers themselves.” This is principle is inherent to real Marxism, which implies democracy and self-emancipation; it also means that democracy is the indispensable foundation for a new society (called socialism or communism). This society, liberated from the diverse forms of domination, will have to be freely constructed by its members.

• Internationalism, which is simultaneously the recognition of the common interests of the workers of the entire world and of the need to struggle on a world scale, and of the goal of abolishing nations in the transition to a human world community.

• The knowledge and analysis of History (the materialist conception of history).

• The recognition of the existence of social classes that divide men and women into distinct segments of the population; the recognition of the profound inequalities and injustices that separate these classes; and the recognition that as long as society is divided into classes, there will be conflicts between these classes (the class struggle).

As a result, while they participate in the day-to-day class struggle of the workers, Marxists work on behalf of a reorganization of society that will put an end to this class division.

• The free exercise of the critical spirit. “Doubt everything”, Marx said; for the goal is to perceive reality as it is, in order to understand it better and thus to transform it.

These principles, or some of them, could very well be embraced by other political and social tendencies: if this is the case, then so much the better! Marxism does not attempt to isolate itself, quite the contrary: the goal is to contribute to the constitution of a movement of all of society for the creation of “an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all” (Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto).

 

According to law, following activities are banned during election campaign:

• Threatening or bribing the voters.
• Asking for votes in the name of religion or caste.
• Use of government resources in election campaign.
• Spending more than Rs. 25 lakh in a Lok Sabha constituency and more than Rs. 10 lakh in an assembly constituency.

Advertising of his party and not speak the slogans.

Poverty Line It is an imaginary line used by any country to determine its poverty. Poor It is person which lacks the financial resources and essential things to enjoy. Calories and Rupees fixed for rural and urban areas to measure poverty line .The poverty line fixed for the rural and urban areas in India according in the year 2012 was Rs 816 and Rs 1000 per person per month respectively. It is higher in urban areas because of high prices of many essential commodities in urban areas.
 

Poverty line is defined as the line under which the poor strata of the society which cannot afford the basic requirements lives

Sociology was established by Comte in 1838. He had earlier used the term "social physics", but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the scientific understanding of the social realm.

India is enrich with with different type of topography and has got prevalance of different climatic condition.
The different regions of the country have different soil types. Though India has an essentially monsoon type of climate, it has great variations in temperature and humidity across the country. Beside these, variation in duration of sunlight is also different.

The three provisions made in Constitution prevent exploitation of the weaker sections are
(i) The Constitution prohibits traffic in human beings because traffic is selling and buying of human beings especially the weaker sections.
(ii) The Constitution prohibits forced labourer begar in any forms because begar is a practice where the worker is forced to render service to the master free of charge or at a nominal remuneration.
(iii) The Constitution also prohibits child labour. No one can employ a child below the age of 14 to work in any factory or mine or any hazardous work.

EPIC refers to Election Photo Identity Card system which has been introduced by Election Commission in the recent years. This Card is given to every person on the voters’ list and the voters are required to carry the same during the time of elections.
Voter’s List: A list of all eligible voters is prepared for each constituency a few months before the elections. Voter’s list is updated from time to time to include the new voters and delete those who may have left the area or may have died. Voter’s list is also called electoral roll.

The Judicial system in India is single integrated and organised in a pyramidical form.
At the apex is the Supreme Court, which is followed by High Courts at the state level, District Courts at the District level and Lok Adalats at the village and panchayat level.
All the courts are under the control and guidance of the Supreme Court. The decisions of the Supreme Court are binding on the other courts.
The judiciary of India is a powerful and independent institution. It is a mechanism for the legal redressal of disputes and prosecution of legal offenders as well. Apart from this, the judiciary at the higher level also interprets the Constitution and resolves disputes between the centre and states as well as between different states. It protects the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution and is the mechanism to seek recourse to constitutional remedies. It also strikes down any law that contravenes the Constitution in letter and spirit. Along with the legislature and the executive, it is one of the three pillars of Indian democracy.

1. Cannot use govt vehicles for electio campaign 2. Cannot spend more than 25 lakh in campaign 3. Cannot use public places like temples stations etc for campaign 4. The existing party cannot lay down foundation of new project

1. Availability of food: It means food production within the country, food imports and the previous years stock stored in government granaries.
2. Accessibility : It means food is within reach of every person.
3. Affordability : It implies that an individual has enough money to buy sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet one’s dietary needs.

The main reasons for deforestation are :

(i) “With the increase in population, there is increasing demand for forest products.
(ii) Several forests have been cleared for agriculture.
(iii) Intensive damage has been done to forests, due to the practice of shifting agriculture, especially in North-eastern parts of our country.
(iv) Overgrazing and cutting trees for fuel.
(v) Due to urbanisation forests have been cleared for construction of roads and railways.

  Measures to conserve forests are :
(i) Planting fast growing trees and preventing the felling of young trees.
(ii) Preventing forest fires.
(iii) Create public awareness about the importance of forests.
(iv) We must celebrate Vanamahotsava and plant trees in areas which are not suitable for agriculture.
(v) A National Day celebration programmes should follow a programme of tree plantation.

 

Nazism became a mass movement after the great economic depression for the following reasons:

• Peole had lost faith in democracy
• They wanted their dignity to be restored.
• They treated Hitler & Nazism as a messiah who had come to their help.

South-West Monsoon	North-East Monsoon
(i)These monsoon winds blow northward from the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal.	(i)These monsoon winds blow from northeast towards the sea-side.
(ii)These monsoon winds blow from June to September.	(ii)These winds blow from October to November.
(iii)These winds cause country-wide rainfall.	(iii)These cause rainfall only in Coromandel coast including Tamil Nadu when these strike at the wetlands of the Eastern Ghats.
(iv)These blow from oceanic high pressure areas towards the low pressure areas of land.	(iv)These winds blow from land to sea as a result of reversal in the direction of wind or start of retreating monsoon season.
(v)These winds blow during advancing monsoon season.	(v)These winds blow during retreating monsoon season.

 

The south west monsoon winds blow towards the north from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal during the months of June to September. 

These winds cause a nationwide rainfall. The north east monsoon winds blow from the north east side of the country to the sea side during the months of October and November. 

These winds cause rain fall only on the Coromandel coast when they strike against the wet lands of the eastern Ghats. 

Latitude: The Indian landmass is equally divided by The Tropic of Cancer. Hence, half of India has tropical climate and another half has subtropical climate.

Altitude: While the average elevation in the coastal areas is about 30 metre, the average elevation in the north is about 6,000 metre. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the Indian subcontinent. Due to this, the subcontinent gets comparatively milder winters as compared to Central Asia.

Pressure and Winds: The Indian subcontinent lies in the region of north-easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. After that, these winds blow towards south. They get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force and then move towards the low pressure area near the equator.

The impacts of the Indian Forest Act of 1865 on the lives of various people:

Most of the basic means of livelihood of the forest dwelling tribes were banned by the British. The daily practices of villagers, such as cutting wood, grazing cattle, collecting fruits and roots, and fishing, were banned and made illegal.

Forest dwelling tribes largely depended on hunting small animals like deer, rabbit and partridge for food. The British also imposed a ban on the hunting of small animals. They encouraged the sport of hunting of wild and dangerous animals like the elephant, lion and tiger, by giving rewards. If anyone was caught hunting illegally, they were severely punished for poaching. Even shifting cultivation, which had been practiced for several generations by the forest tribes, was banned.

Shifting cultivation was an agricultural system in which plots of land were cultivated temporarily, and then abandoned.

Shifting cultivation was banned by the British as the land became useless for growing timber, led to forest fires and also resulted in soil erosion. It was difficult for the British to calculate taxes. The nomadic and pastoral tribes were left with only two options - either give in and change their occupation, or take the stronger path and rebel.

While the Indian Forest Act was passed as a boon to the British, it proved to be a bane for the forest dwellers.

Not at all You just need to understand the topic do not cram them Moreover attention should be given to ncert questions also for about 30 marks in paper comes from ncert exercise only You can tell me your class if you want me refer you reference books among which all in one and together with are most famous and helpful

Aim of Production :-
The aim of production is to produce the goods and services to generate wealth that we want for ourselves.

There are four requirements needed for the production of goods and services. These are described as follows.

1) Land -
Land is fixed and immobile in nature. Land is a free and a valuable gift by nature to mankind. It is used for various purposes such as mining, agriculture, running an industry etc. It is an important requirement for production of goods and services. Without land, production is impossible. Rent is the remuneration for land.

2) Labour -
Labour means human force. Things cannot be produced unless someone makes them. Labour represents all the people that are available to transform resources into goods or services that can be purchased. Labour is not fixed, rather it is mobile in nature. Labour move from one place to another place, one employer to another employer, in search of better opportunity. Wage rate is the remuneration for labour. Labour is another important requirement for production of goods and services.

3) Capital -
we will need money to produce any kind of goods or services. So, capital is called the life blood of all economic activities. It's what capital allows labour and land to be purchased. Steady streams of capital are often required in order to keep a business going. Capital can be further divided into two - fixed capital and working capital. Interest is the remuneration for capital.

4) Human Capital or Entrepreneur -
Entrepreneur is the person who is combining all the requirements of production of goods or services. He puts together land, labour and capital to produce the desired goods or services. The entrepreneur takes risks as he invests his capital in the business. Profit is the remuneration for entrepreneur.

The Saminist Movement started in the last decade of the 19th century in Java. Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village headed the movement.
The Dutch government forced the farmers to pay taxes on land and restricted villagers, access to forest by enacting the Forest Law in Java.
Samin questioned state ownership of the forest. He argued that the state had not created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own it.
Soon a widespread movement started. Samin’s sons-in-law took the leadership. By 1907, 3000 families started following the ideas of Samin.
Some of the rebels protested by lying down on their land, when the Dutch came to survey the land.
Some even refused to pay taxes or fines or perform free labour.