(i)Sakal was educated while Vilas remained an uneducated boy.

(ii)Sakal was a healthy boy whereas Vilas turned out to be a patient of arthritis.

(iii)Sakal earned a sound salary while Vilas had only a meagre income.

(iv)Sakal secured a job in the private firm, contrary to it, Vilas survived by selling fish in the nearby market.

Latitude: The Indian landmass is equally divided by The Tropic of Cancer. Hence, half of India has tropical climate and another half has subtropical climate.

Altitude: While the average elevation in the coastal areas is about 30 metre, the average elevation in the north is about 6,000 metre. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the Indian subcontinent. Due to this, the subcontinent gets comparatively milder winters as compared to Central Asia.

Pressure and Winds: The Indian subcontinent lies in the region of north-easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. After that, these winds blow towards south. They get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force and then move towards the low pressure area near the equator.

Primary Sector: Agriculture is the most labour absorbing sector of the economy. In recent years, there has been a decline in the dependence of population on agriculture partly because of disguised unemployment. Some of the surplus labour in agriculture has moved to either the secondary or the tertiary sector.
Secondary Sector: Small-scale manufacturing is the most labour absorbing.
Tertiary Sector: Various new services are now appearing like biotechnology, information technology, media and so on.

The core social and political values of our constitution are reflected in the Preamble to our constitution which serves as the introduction to our constitution and summarizes its aims and objectives. It underlines the philosophy of our constitution and upholds its spirit and ideology. It is the Preamble which provides for proper appreciation of our aims and goals and aspirations as embodied in the constitution. Some of the values are:

a. Sovereign- People's right to decision making both internally and externally

b. Secularism - Freedom of religion to people and that there is no official religion

c. Socialist- to ensure economic equality where government would establish control over economy

d. Democratic.- Government based on the will of the people

e. Republic- head of the state will be an elected one

Values of liberty , equality, fraternity and justice were reflected in our constitution.Like wise, our Constituent members were also committed to bring about social and economic revolution in the country that would give opportunity to people to develop. Thus, they included chapter on Fundamental rights and Directive Principles.

(i) In any society people are bound to have differences of opinions and interests. These differences are particularly sharp in our country which has amazing social diversity.
(ii) People belong to different regions, speak different languages, practice different religions and have different castes. The preferences of one group can clash with those of other groups.
(iii) The conflict can be solved by brutal power. Whichever group is more powerful will dictate its terms and others will have to accept that. But that will lead to resentment.
(iv) Democracy provides the only peaceful solution to this problem. In democracy, no one is permanent winner. No one is a permanent loser. Different groups can live with one another peacefully. In a diverse country like India, democracy allows different kinds of people to live together.

• Familiarity with political institutions of colonial rule was helpful in designing the constitution
• The experience of having worked with the political institutions of colonial rule helped develop an agreement over the institutional design.
• The British rule had given voting rights to selected few and that created very weak legislatures.
• Elections were held in 1937 to Provincial Legislatures and Ministries all over British India.
• Thus the experience gained by Indians in the working of the legislative institutions proved to be very useful for the country in setting up its own institutions andworking in them.
• That is why the Indian constitution draws many institutional details and procedures from colonial laws like the Government of India Act 1935.

(i) President Allende addressed himself mainly to the worker's because he was a socialist and had taken several policy decisions to help the poor and the workers.  
 (ii) President Allende was opposed to foreign companies taking away natural resources like copper from the country. He implemented the policy of the redistribution of land to the landless farmers and free education and free milk for the poor children. The landlords, the rich and the church opposed his policies and were unhappy with him for supporting the poor.  

The first and most basic of all needs are those to do with physical survival. This is the need for food, drink, shelter, sleep and oxygen. If a person cannot satisfy this basic survival need it dominates their interest and concern.

A large population, from productive aspect, contributes to Gross National Product.

Human capital formation is the process of transforming the people in a country into workers who are capable of producing goods and services. During this process, relatively unskilled individuals are given the tools they need to contribute to the economy.

The role of education in human capital formation is as follows:

1. Educated people earn more than the uneducated people.
2. Literate population is an asset to an economy.
3. It leads to higher productivity.
4. It opens new avenues for a person.
5. It provides new aspirations and develops values of life. if) It contributes to the growth of society.
6. It enhances the national income, cultural richness and the efficiency of the governance.

The role of education in human capital formation are as follows:

1. An educated society facilitate better development program than an illiterate one.
2. Education improves productivity and prosperity, and also improve enriched life experience.
3. It does not only contribute towards the growth of the people but also the development of society as a whole.
4. Education increases national income and other cultural richness.

Question .
What is people as a resource ?
A n s w e r :
People as a resource means people are an asset rather than a liability, i.e., the work population of a country.

'People as Resource' is a way of referring to a country's working people in terms of their existing productive skills and abilities. Human resource is an asset for the economy rather than a liability. Population becomes human capital when there is investment made in the form of education, training and medical care.

25 PERCENT

One-fourth  means 25% of the population of Palampur is engaged in non-farming activities like shop-keeping, dairy, manufacturing and transport.
Shop-keepers buy goods from wholesalers in Shahpur and sell them in Palampur. Milk from the dairies in Palampur is transported daily to Raiganj. Some traders from Shahpur have set up collection centres and chilling plants at Raiganj, from where milk is supplied to other towns and cities.

One-fourth  means 25% of the population of Palampur is engaged in non-farming activities like shop-keeping, dairy, manufacturing and transport.

The non-farm activities of Palampur are:
Dairy farming:
People feed their buffaloes with various kinds of grass, jowar, bajra that grows during the rainy season.
The milk is sold in nearby villages.
Some people have set up collection centres and chilling centres from where milk is transported to far away towns and cities.
Small-scale manufacturing:
Manufacturing in Palampur involves very simple production methods and are done on a small scale.
They are carried out mostly at home.
This is mostly done with the help of family labour. Labour is rarely hired.
Shopkeeping:
Shopkeepers buy various goods from the wholesale market in the cities and sell them in the village.
Small general stores in the village sell a wide range of items like rice, wheat, sugar, oil, biscuits, soap, batteries, candles, toothpaste, pens, pencils, notebooks, and even some clothes.
Some families whose houses are closer to the bus stand have used a part of the space to open small shops. They sell eatables here.
Transport:
Rickshawallahs, tongawallahs, jeep, tractor, truck drivers and people driving the traditional bullock carts and bogeys are the people in transport services.
They carry people and goods from one place to another and in return get paid for it.
The number of people in transport services have risen over the last several years.
Self-employed:
Some people have opened coaching institutes for various kinds of arts like computer training centres or stitching classes, etc. to obtain profit from a non-farm activity and train more and more people for better opportunities in their lives.

A farmer's main goal is to produce a good crop and/or healthy animals in order to make a living and to feed the population. Farmers are responsible for all crops and livestock that are needed for us to survive. Properly managed transport is efficient in delivering farm resources and harvested crops as fast as possible. When considered as the final practice of delivering the crops to the market, transport is responsible for the preservation of crop yield and quality.

Many kinds of transport are used by the people of village of Palampur. They use bullock carts, tongas, rickshaws, bogeys and goods. They are also used for loading jaggery and other commodities to their neighouring farms like Raiganj. Motor vehicles like motorcycles, jeeps, tractors and trucks, etc. are used to transport people like surplus crops to sell it to their neighbouring villages

Small farmers have no capital and have to arrange for capital by taking loans from large farmers on a very high interest rate. In addition, the banks do not provide them with loans because they lack proper documents and collaterals such as house, livestock or nay other property to guarantee to obtain a loan.

So the repayment of loan is crucially dependent on the income from farming. If there is failure in crop production then the repayment of the loan will become impossible. Hence, the small farmers have to sell part of the land to repay the loan. Credit instead of helping the small farmers made the situation still more worst and pushed the borrower into debt trap.

Most small farmers borrow money for the requirement of capital. They borrow money from large farmers or traders that they supply various raw materials for cultivation of land or moneylenders within the village.

All man-made goods which are used for further production of wealth are included in capital. Thus, it is man-made material source of production. Alternatively, all man-made aids to production, which are not consumed/or their own sake, are termed as capital.

It is the produced means of production. Examples are—machines, tools, buildings, roads, bridges, raw material, trucks, factories, etc. An increase in the capital of an economy means an increase in the productive capacity of the economy. Logically and chronologically, capital is derived from land and labour and has therefore, been named as Stored-Up labour.

Numerous wars were waged by Louis XVI. This drained the French treasury. The situation was made even more complex by France’s involvement in the American War of Independence and the faulty system of taxation. While the privileged classes were execused from paying taxes, the Third Estate were burdened with heavy taxes. 

Popular Participation

• Contrary to perceptions, the popular participation in elections in India has shown an increasing trend. The recent assembly elections held in four states in 2013, saw voter turnout up to 80% in some constituencies.
• It is usually the voters from the poor class which participate with full zest in the Indian elections. People from the middle classes and upper classes usually show aloofness towards the electoral process. But the recent assembly elections surprisingly saw a very high turnout from the middle classes and upper classes as well.

(i) Apartheid was the name of a system of racial discrimination imposed by white Europeans on South Africa. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the trading companies from Europe occupied it with force and became the local rulers. The system of apartheid divided the people and labelled them on the basis of the colour of their skin.

(ii) The natives of South Africa were black in colour. They made up about three-fourth of the population and were called blacks. Besides these two groups (whites and blacks), there were people of mixed races, who were called coloured. The white minority formed the government and followed the policy of apartheid.

(iii) They treated non-whites as inferiors, The non-whites did not have voting rights. The apartheid system was particularly oppressive for the blacks. They were forbidden from living in white areas. They could work in white areas only if they had a permit. 

Trains, buses, taxis, hotels, hospitals, schools and colleges, libraries, cinema halls, theatres, beaches, swimming Pools, public toilets were all separate for the whites and the blacks. They could not even visit the churches where the whites worshipped. The Blacks could not form associations or protest against the terrible treatment.

(iv) Since 1950, the blacks, coloured and the Indians fought against this oppressive system. They launched protest marches and strikes. The party called African National Congress (ANC) led the struggle which soon took momentum.

(v) As the protests against the apartheid system had increased, it became difficult for the white government to control the blacks. The white regime changed its policies. Discriminatory laws were repealed. Ban of political parties and restrictions on the media were lifted. Nelson mandela was set free.

(vi) Finally, at the midnight of 26 April, 1994, the new national flag of the Republic of South Africa was unfurled, marking the newly born democracy in the world. Apartheid government came to an end and a multi-racial government was formed.

 The total length of Ganga River is 2525 km. 

National income is defined as the total net value of all goods and services produced within a nation over a specified period of time.  Thus, it is the net result of all economic activities of any country during a period of one year and is valued in terms of money.

• Since 1950, the blacks, coloured and the Indians fought against this oppressive system. They launched protest marches and strikes. The party called African National Congress (ANC) led the struggle which soon took momentum.
• As the protests against the apartheid system had increased, it became difficult for the white government to control the blacks. The white regime changed its policies. Discriminatory laws were repealed. Ban of political parties and restrictions on the media were lifted. Nelson mandela was set free.
• Finally, at the midnight of 26 April, 1994, the new national flag of the Republic of South Africa was unfurled, marking the newly born democracy in the world. Apartheid government came to an end and a multi-racial government was formed.

The Rivonia Trial took place in South Africa between 9 October 1963 and 12 June 1964. The Rivonia Trial led to the imprisonment of Nelson Mandela and the others among the accused who were convicted of sabotage and sentenced to life at the Palace of Justice, Pretoria.

Nelson Mandela was arrested and jailed because he was accused of treason by the South African government.  During the apartheid era, Nelson Mandela was imprisoned for a number of crimes. However, the real reason that he was imprisoned is because he was working to get rid of apartheid Africa.