Democracy is based on a fundamental principle of political equality. In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value. But there are many instances of denial of equal right to vote:

(i) In Saudi Arabia women do not have the right to vote.

(ii) Estonia has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to Russian minority find it difficult to get the right to vote.

(iii) In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has more value than that of an Indian-Fijian.

• Physical capital: Physical capital is the variety of inputs required at every stage during production. It includes fixed capital and working capital.
• Fixed capital: Tools and machines range from a plough to a tractor and sophisticated machines like generators, turbines, computers, etc. The tools, machines, buildings which can be used in production over many years are called fixed capital.
• Working capital: Production requires a variety of raw materials. It requires money to make payments and buy other necessary items. Raw materials and money in hand are called working capital. Unlike tools and machines, these are used up in production. For example, Yarn required by a weaver; clay used by a potter.

Nepoleon Bonaparte

The quality of an election process can be checked in three ways:

• Who Conducts the Election: Indian elections are conducted by an independent Election Commission, which has the power to even reprimand the government and the administration for their lapses.
• Popular Participation: If the election process is not free and fair, people do not participate in the electoral process. So, the turn-out of the election is also a way to check the quality of the election process.
• Acceptance of the outcome: If the election is not free and fair, the outcome always favour the powerful and the losing party does not accept the outcome. So, to assess the quality of election process, one can check the response of the losing party.

Spartheid was a system in which people of South Africa are distinguished on the bases of there color. The native of south Africa were blacks... they were black in colours so they were known as blacks...... the white were small in number but enjoy over blacks...... everything like schools ,colleges, cinema hall, temple, public transport, etc. all were different for blacks and white and blacks were also not allowed to protest against this, they cannot worship were white worship.

The racial discrimination between africans is apartheied system

Factors Affecting India’s Climate

Latitude: The Indian landmass is equally divided by The Tropic of Cancer. Hence, half of India has tropical climate and another half has subtropical climate.

Altitude: While the average elevation in the coastal areas is about 30 metre, the average elevation in the north is about 6,000 metre. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the Indian subcontinent. Due to this, the subcontinent gets comparatively milder winters as compared to Central Asia.

Pressure and Winds: The Indian subcontinent lies in the region of north-easterly winds. These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere. After that, these winds blow towards south. They get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force and then move towards the low pressure area near the equator.

before the French revolution the society was divided into various estates . there were the first estate consisting of the priests. then there were the second estate consisting of nobles then the third estate consisting of peasants etc . during the French revolution the middle class arose which consisted of lawyers businessmen etc

Subsistence crisis is an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. The Factors Responsible for this Type of Crises were: 
(i) The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789. This led to a rapid increase in the demand for foodgrains. Production of grains could not keep pace with the demand. So the price of bread which was the staple diet of the majority rose rapidly. Most worker were employed as labourers in workshops whose owner fixed their wages. But wages did not keep pace with the rise in prices. So, the gap between the poor and the rich widened. 
(ii) Things became worse whenever drought or haul reduced the harvest. This led to a subsistence crisis.

Main features of the Hitler's policy of reconstruction were:

Hitler's economist Hjalmar Schacht was given the responsibility of looking after the economic recovery of Germany

• The policy of reconstruction aimed at providing full employment to the people through various policies and programmes funded by the state.
• Many German highways were constructed and the period also saw the beginning of Volkswagen-the people's car.
• He set up various armament factories and manufactured naval ships and air planes. This further created employment opportunities for the people.

Causes of the French Revolution:

Despotic rule of Louis XVI: He became the ruler of France in 1774. He had drained the financial resources of France in wars. For the cost of his regular extravagant expenses, he increased taxes which were paid by the third estate.
Division of French society: The French society was divided into three estates; first, second and third estates, respectively. Among them, First and Second Estates had 10 per cent of the total population and were the clergy and nobles. They enjoyed all privileges. Rest of the 90 per cent was of the third estate, which paid all kinds of direct or indirect taxes. This kind of discrimination led to the revolution by the third estate.
Rising prices: The population of France had increased. This resulted into more demand of food grains. So the price of bread rose rapidly, which the poor could not afford to buy. So the gap between the rich and poor widened.
Inspiration of the philosophers: Philosophers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu propagated the ideas of having a society where people would enjoy freedom, equal laws and equal opportunities. Their ideas inspired the people of France to realise their dreams.
Role of middle class: The 18th century witnessed the emergence of social groups termed as middle class, who earned their wealth through an expanding trade of the manufactured goods, being exported. There were other professionals also like lawyers, administrative officials who were all educated. They believed that no group in society should be privileged by birth.

Kanyakumari is the southernmost mainland tip of India. Indira Point in the Andaman and Nicobar Island is the southernmeost tip of the Indian territory.

An Election Manifesto is a formal statement of the programmes and objectives of a political party. It deals with various issues like Centre-State relations, judicial reforms, social justice, health, education, defence, world peace, economic growth, etc. It also contains the promises made by the party for sections of society.

The two planks on which the anti-poverty strategy of the government is based:

i) Promotion of economic growth. The higher growth rates have helped significantly in the reduction of poverty. In the eighties, India's economic growth was one of the fastest in the world. The growth rate rose from the average of about 3.5 percent year in the 1970s to 6 percent during the 1980s and 1990s. Therefore, it is becoming clear that there is a strong link between economic growth and poverty reduction.

(ii) Targeted anti-poverty programs. The government formulated several anti-poverty schemes to eradicate poverty such as National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) 2005, Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana (PMRY), Rural Employment Generation Programme, Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY), Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY), National Food for Work Programme.

Merits of  elections in India.
As the voters elect their representatives directly, direct elections are considered to be a more democratic method of election. It educates people regarding the government activities and helps in choosing appropriate candidates.

demerits are
1.It creates a sense of disunity and 'factionalism' in every locality.
2.Different political parties and leaders often level allegations against one another.
3.Parties and candidates often use dirty tricks to win elections.
 

The Ribbon is a user interface element which was introduced by Microsoft in Microsoft Office 2007. It is located below the Quick Access Toolbar and the Title Bar. It comprises seven tabs; Home, Insert, Page layout, References, Mailing, Review and View. Each tab has specific groups of related commands. It gives you quick access to the commonly used commands that you need to complete a task.