Indian Constitution is both rigid and flexible, because the procedure of amendment is neither easy nor difficult. The Constitution has provided a federal structure for India. The jurisdictions of the centre and state have been defined and demarcated. Both the centre and the states have been authorised to exercise powers independency. There are provisions which can change the Federal structure into a Unitary one. Amendments can be made only with the consent of both the Centre and the States. A special majority of the Union Parliament, i.e., a majority of not less then two-thirds vote is required to amend the Constitution. Thus Indian Constitution enjoys the advantages of a combination of flexibility and rigidity.

The four teachings of Rousseau that laid the foundation of democracy were as follows:
(i) He upheld the doctrine of popular sovereignty.
(ii) He believed that the government should be based on the consent of the governed.
(iii) He stated that people are the real sovereigns and kings rule only with their consent.
(iv) His famous book 'Social Contract' tells us about a contract between the rulers and the ruled whereby the former would guarantee the freedom and happiness.

Following are four important ideals on which the Preamble to the Indian Constitution lays special emphasis:

Justice – This ideal implies that citizens of India cannot be discriminated on the basis of caste, religion and gender. It entrusts the Government of India with the removal of social inequalities and the welfare of all, especially the disadvantaged groups.

Liberty – This ideal establishes that there are no unreasonable restrictions on Indian citizens in terms of what they think, their manner of expression and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action.

Equality – It asserts that all Indian citizens are equal before the law of the land. It recognises that the traditional social inequalities are irrelevant and the government is obliged to ensure equality of opportunity for all citizens.

Fraternity – It means that all citizens should behave as if they are part of the same family. No one should treat a fellow citizen as inferior

The Russian Revolution of 1917 had two stages. They were:

(i) The February Revolution or political stage when Tsar abdicated his throne and the Mensheviks under Kerenskii came to power.

(ii) The October Revolution or economic and social stage, when the Bolsheviks under the leadership of Lenin overthrew Kerenskii's government and seized control.

Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik party took important measures to make Russian Revolution successful. His contribution in Russian Revolution is immense, it can be explained in the following ways:

1. Lenin organised the Bolshevik party and in April 1917, renamed it as the Communist party. The party was based on the ideology of Karl Marx.
2. In his 'April theses’ he demanded the war to be brought to a close, land be transferred to the peasants and banks be nationalised. .
3. He proclaimed the right to self-determination of all people in the Russian empire. On 7th November, 1817, the Provisional Government fell, Zenin became the head of the world’s first communist country.
4. He implemented his policies and tried to make Russia a truely socialist state till his death in 1924.

Health is an important component of population composition because it affects the process of development. Although the health conditions of the Indian population have improved a lot due to the sustained efforts of government programmes, more and more efforts are still needed in this regard in order to get the optimum results. The reasons behind this are given below:
(i) The per capita calorie consumption is much below the recommended levels and malnutrition affects a large percentage of our population.
(ii) Safe drinking water and basic sanitation amenities are available to only one-third of the rural population.
Unless these problems are tackled properly, health condition of the Indian population can't reach up to the desired level.

In the market even if a shopkeeper is interested in his profit only, he is forced to give good service to the customer. Political competition may cause divisions and some ugliness, but it finally helps to force political parties and leaders to serve the people.

The members of the third estate had to pay direct tax to the state known as 'taille'. Indirect taxes were imposed on tobacco, salt and many other everyday items. Thus, the third estate was seething with financial difficulties. There was the rise and emergence of many social groups in France in the eighteenth century.

Making of socialist society is described below:

(i)During the civil war, the Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalised. They permitted peasants to cultivate the land that had been socialised.

(ii)Bolsheviks used confiscated land to demonstrate what collective work could be. A process of centralised planning was introduced. Officials assessed how the economy could work and set targets for a five-year period.

(iii)On this basis they made the Five Year Plans. The government fixed all prices to promote industrial growth during the first two ‘Plans’ (1927-1932 and 1933-1938). Centralised planning led to economic growth. Industrial production increased (between 1929 and 1933 by 100 per cent in the case of oil, coal and steel). New factory cities came into being.

(iv)An extended schooling system developed, and arrangements were made for factory workers and peasants to enter universities.

(v)Crèches were established in factories for the children of women. Cheap public health care was provided. Model living quarters were set up for workers. 

• Physical capital: Physical capital is the variety of inputs required at every stage during production. It includes fixed capital and working capital.
• Fixed capital: Tools and machines range from a plough to a tractor and sophisticated machines like generators, turbines, computers, etc. The tools, machines, buildings which can be used in production over many years are called fixed capital.
• Working capital: Production requires a variety of raw materials. It requires money to make payments and buy other necessary items. Raw materials and money in hand are called working capital. Unlike tools and machines, these are used up in production.
• For example, Yarn required by a weaver; clay used by a potter.
• Human capital: One needs knowledge and enterprise to be able to put together land, labour and physical capital and produce an output; either to use it by oneself or to sell in the market. This is known as human capital, which enables better production with human skill and knowledge

1. They hated Jews.

2. They sent the Jews to concentration camps.

3. Nazi used media to propagate about the Jews that they were antichrist.

4. The schools textbooks were rewritten and Jew children and teachers were separated.

5. Jews were seen different and were very badly treated with Nazis and they used to have a symbol which indicates that they were Jews.

The Nuremberg trials were a series of military tribunals held by the Allied forces under international law and the laws of war after World War II. The trials were most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, judicial and economic leadership of Nazi Germany, who planned, carried out, or otherwise participated in the Holocaust and other war crimes. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Germany, and their decisions marked a turning point between classical and contemporary international law.

The apartheid system was particularly oppressive for the blacks in the following ways:
(i) The blacks were forbidden from living in white areas. They could work in white areas only if they had a permit.
(ii) Trains, buses, taxis, hotels, hospitals, schools and colleges, libraries, cinema halls, theatres, beaches, swimming pools, public toilets, were all separate for the whites and blacks.
(iii) The blacks could not visit churches where the whites worshipped.
(iv) They could not form associations or protest against the terrible system of apartheid.

Wings of Fire

Abdul Kalam, whose projects in space, defence and nuclear technology guided India into the twenty-first century, became our eleventh President in 2002. In his autobiography, Wings of Fire, he speaks of his childhood. island town of Rameswaram in the erstwhile Madras State.

There are 50 tiger reserves in India which are governed by Project Tiger which is administrated by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).

Lenin headed the Soviet Union till his death in 1924. Joseph Stalin took over the reins from him. There was acute shortage of grain in 1927. The government had fixed the price of grain but the peasants did not want to sell to the government at these prices.

Rich peasants or ‘kulaks’ were raided and grain stocks confiscated. Stalin enforced collectivization of farms as solution to grain shortage.

Peasants were forced to work in collective farms called ‘kolkhoz’ sharing the profits equally.

This was not entirely successful as the production of grain did not increase immediately. In 1930, the Soviet Union faced one of the worst famines in history leaving over 4 million people dead.

a. 

Bihar is the poorest State with 43% incidence of poverty. Jharkhand (36%), Uttar Pradesh (31%), Rajasthan (31%) and Odisha (29%) are also above the national average (21%), as are the other big States — Madhya Pradesh (28%) and Assam (25%).

b. Sikkim is the least populated state in India. The population of this state is 6,07,688. Sikkim is the least populated and second smallest state in our country. The largest city in Sikkim is Gangtok and is the capital city of the state.

Some of the major features of a democracy are:

• The final decision making power rests with those elected by the people.
• It must be based on a free and fair election.
• Each adult citizen must have one vote and each vote must have one value.
• It should rule within limits set by constitutional law and citizens’ rights.

Need for Political Institutions

• A government has to perform various duties, formulate policies and implement them.
• Some have to formulate schemes, some have to take decisions, some have to implement the decisions.
• Hence the need for institutions to do all the above.
• The Constitution of a country lays down basic rules on powers and functions of each institution.
• The prime minister and the cabinet take all policy decisions.
• The civil servants take the steps to implement ministers decisions.
• Supreme court solves disputes between citizen and government.
• The institutions are the Legislative (Parliament), the Executive (the Government) and the Judiciary.

A democracy Works well when the political institutions, like the: Prime Minister and the Cabinet,: the Civil Servants, the Supreme Court, etc., perform functions assigned to them.
The need for these political institutions are
(i) To take decisions Countries need political institutions to take decisions regarding the welfare of the people. Institutions formulate various policies and welfare schemes.
(ii) To implement the decisions The decisions which have been taken care pf are to be implemented.
So, countries need institutions to implement the decisions.
(iii) To solve the disputes Institutions are needed to solve the disputes between various institutions.
(iv) To take right decisions Institutions are also needed to help the government to take the right decisions. They determine what is wrong, and what is right.

The minimum wages for a farm labourer set by the government are Rs. 60 per day, but wages of farm labourers in Palampur are less than minimum wages because there is a heavy competition for work among the labourers. So, people agree to work for lower wages.  

(i)Fraud and malpractices indulged by a party or candidate to increase its votes.

(ii)It includes stuffing ballot boxes by a few persons using the votes of others;

(iii)recording multiple votes by the same person; and

(iv)bribing or coercing polling officers to favour a candidate.

The Cold Weather Season (Winter):

• The winter season begins from mid-November and stays till February; in northern India. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India. The temperature ranges between 10°-15°C in the northern plains, while it ranges between 24°-25°C in Chennai.
• The northeast trade winds prevail over the country in this season. As these winds blow from land to sea, most parts of the country experience a dry season.
• The weather is usually marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble variable winds.

The Hot Weather Season (Summer)

• The summer season is from March to May. During this period, the global heat belt shifts towards north because of the apparent northward movement of the sun.
• During summer, the temperatures rise and air pressure falls in the northern part of the country. Towards the end of May, an elongated low-pressure area develops in the region which extends from the Thar Desert in the northwest to Patna and Chhotanagpur in the east and southeast.
• A characteristic feature of the hot weather season is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot and dry winds which blow during the day over the north and northwestern India.

Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)

• The rainy season begins from early June.
• The low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies at this time. It attracts the trade winds from the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds cross the equator and blow in a south-westerly direction to enter the Indian peninsula as the south-west monsoon. These winds bring abundant moisture to the subcontinent.
• These winds blow at an average velocity of 30 km/h. The monsoon winds cover the country in about a month; barring the extreme north-west.
• The windward side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall, early in the rainy season. The Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some rain, in spite of lying in the rain shadow area.

•  In Germany had fought the war largely on loans and had to pay war reparation in gold.
• This depleted gold reserves at a time when resources were scarce. 
• In 1932, Germany refused to pay, and the French occupied its leading industrial area ‘Ruhr’, to claim their coal. 
• Germany retaliated with passive resistance and printed paper currency wrecklessly.
• With too much printed money in circulation, the value of the German mark fell.
• As the value of the mark collapsed, prices of goods soared.
• The image of the Germany carrying cartloads of currency notes to buy a loaf of bread was widely publicised.
• This crisis came to be known as ‘hyper-inflation’, a situation when prices rise phenomenally high.
•  Eventually, the Americans intervened and bailed Germany out of the crisis by introducing ‘The Dawes Plan’ which reworked the terms of separation to ease the financial burden on Germany.

• The ocean currents may be warm or cold. 

• The warm ocean currents originate near the equator and move towards the poles. The cold currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower latitudes. 

• The ocean current influence the temperature conditions of the area. Warm currents bring about warm temperature over land surface.

• Example: The Labrador Ocean current is a cold current, while the Gulf Stream is a warm current.

• Jew teachers were dismissed from the schools.
• Children were segregated. Germans and Jews neither could sit together nor play together.
• Subsequently, undesirable children Jews, the physically handicapped and Gypsies were thrown out of schools.
• School textbooks were rewritten.
• Racial Science was introduced to justify Nazi’s ideas of race.
• Children were taught to be loyal and submissive, to hate the Jews and worship Hitler.
• Boxing was introduced as Hitler believed that it could make children iron hearted, strong and masculine.