• Lightning can be explained in terms of charges produced due to rubbing. During a thunderstorm, the air currents move upwards and the water droplets move downwards. And this caused due to the separation of charge due to this vigorous motion.
• As a result of this process, the positive charges collect near the upper edge and the negative charges accumulate near the lower edge of the cloud and also near the ground.
• As the charge gets accumulated, its magnitude becomes very large. Water droplets in the air act as a conductor of this charge.
• These charges flow to meet, thus producing strikes of lightning and thunder. For this phenomenon to occur, a sufficiently high electric potential between two regions and a high resistance medium must be present.

The angle of incidence will be 45 degree.
We know that angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
As the angle of reflection + angle of incidence = 90°.
Thus
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection = 45°

Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago, approximately one-third the age of the universe, by accretion from the solar nebula. ... The Hadean eon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life; it began with the formation of the planet and ended 4.0 billion years ago.

Paper is made from wood pulp that is produced from the wood of forest trees. Many trees are cut down to make paper and thus cause deforestation. So we should save paper to save trees. Recycling of paper means to process the waste paper so that it can be used again. Paper can be recycled from old magazines, newspapers, books and notebooks. Paper can be recycled five to seven times for use. We should save paper, reuse paper and recycle paper. By doing so, we can save trees, energy and water needed to manufacture paper. The amount of harmful chemicals used in making paper will also be reduced.

Some of the major functions of judiciary are as follows:

(1) It interprets the laws:

A number of cases are brought before the judges in which the question of the interpretation of the laws arises, because in such cases the law is not clear. Even such matters are brought before them in which the laws are silent. In these cases or matters the judges give their decisions. Later, these decisions are quoted in similar cases. In this way the courts expand the laws in an indirect manner.

(2) Protector of Civil Rights:

People are given many rights by the state through the laws of the Parliament. The courts protect these rights.

(3) Decides the cases:

Many cases relating to the disputes between the citizens, or between the government and the citizens, are brought before the courts. The courts give their decisions on such disputes.

(4) Custodian of fundamental rights:In modern times, many countries grant fundamental rights to the people in the Constitution. The Supreme Courts there act as the custodian of these rights. In the Constitution of our country, citizen violates these fundamental rights or if, because of this violation, a person loses his rights, an appeal can be filed in a High Court or the Supreme Court for the protection of these rights. It is the duty of the courts to protect the rights of the citizens. Our High Courts and Supreme Court have decided many cases in which the question of the violation of the fundamental rights was involved.

(5) Guardian of the Constitution:

Chief Justice Marshall of U.S.A. definitely decided in Marbury v. Madison (1803) that the courts had the inherent right to declare the acts of Congress invalid. Since then Marbury case forms the basis of this important authority exercised by the Supreme Court.

If a law passed by the Congress violates the Constitution, that law shall be declared as void because the Constitution is the highest law of the land and it is the duty of the courts to protect it. The principle which was devised by Chief Justice Marshall is known as Judicial Review. For the protection of the Constitution many laws have been declared illegal which violated any law or any clause of the Constitution.

(6) Decides the conflicts of jurisdiction between the Centre and State Governments in Federations:

In federal constitutions there is a division of powers between the Centre and the States. There is a possibility of disputes arising between the Centre and the State over the jurisdiction. Therefore, the Supreme Court is given the right to decide these disputes.

Selling Price = Rs.382500

Original Price = Rs.340000

VAT Amount = 382500- 340000

= Rs.42500

VAT % = (VAT Amount/Original Price) × 100

= (42500/340000) × 100

= 12.5%

So, Rate of VAT on Car is 12.5%

Iron and steel industry is often referred to as the backbone of the modern industry because of the following reasons: Almost everything is either made from iron or steel has been made using tools and machinery made of these metals.

Khilafat movement was started by Ali brothers in August 1920 for the preservation of the office of Khalifa (Caliph), the religious head of the Muslims. Gandhiji combined the Khilafat Movement with the Non-Cooperation Movement as he saw in this an opportunity to unite Hindus & the Muslims.

In 1921, the Khilafat Committee appealed to all Muslims not to join the police & armed forces & not to pay taxes. this enraged the government. The Ali brothers were arrested on charges of sedition.

Gandhiji suspended the Non-Cooperation movement after the Chauri Chaura incident. He was arrested in 1922. A few months after his arrest, the Caliph or the Sultan of Turkey was deposed of his power due to a revolution led by Mustafa Kemal Pasha.

Later on, Turkey moved towards becoming a secular state & the Khilafat issue lost its importance.

Some of the steps taken to ensure independence of judiciary are as follows:

1. Separation of Judiciary from the Executive and Legislature:

Judiciary in India is neither a branch of the executive nor a hand-maid of the legislature. It has an independent identity under the Constitution. It enjoys full autonomy in its working.

2. Appointment of Judges by the President:

The method of appointment of judges has been very sound. The Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed by the President. While appointing other judges the Supreme Court, the President consults the Chief Justice of India. In case of the appointment of the Chief Justice, the practice of appointing the senior most judges to this high office is followed. In the case of subordinate courts, the Judges are recruited through competitive examinations.

3. High Qualifications:

The Constitution prescribes specific and high qualifications for the Judges. A person eligible for judgeship has to be an Indian citizen, must have experience as a Judge of a High Court for at least five years or as an advocate of High Court for at least ten years or be a distinguished jurist. Thus, only persons with high qualifications and experience are appointed as judges of the courts.

4. Long Tenure:

Judges of Supreme Court remain in office till they attain the age of 65 years. This age limit ensures a long tenure for the Judges.

5. Security of Service:

The Judges in India enjoy good security of service. No judge can be removed from the office except by a very difficult process of impeachment.

6. High Salary:

Every Judge of the Supreme Court gets a high salary. Besides this, each judge is entitled to free residential accommodation, medical allowance and several other perks. Salaries and allowances of judges cannot be reduced during their terms of office, except in the situation of a financial emergency in the country.

7. Prohibition of Practice after Retirement:

A Judge of the Supreme Court is prohibited to practice before any court or authority in India.

Given:

 Principal (P) =₹ 42,000, Rate of Interest (R) = 8%, Time (n) = 1 years

Amount (A)  = P(1-R/100)^n

[Value depreciated]

A= 42000(1-8/100)¹

A=42000(1-2/25)

A= (42000×23)/25

A= 1680× 23

A= ₹ 38640

Hence, the value of the scooter after one year = ₹ 38640.

Special privileges were given for the poorest and most disadvantaged Indians. The dalits and the tribals had faced oppression since ages. They were given reservation in government jobs and educational institutions so that they could improve their socioeconomic status.

After the 1840s, paintings on social and political themes were began produced, called as kalighat paintings.
Many of kalighat pictures were printed in large number and sold in the market.