Governor General Lord Hastings (1813-1823) initiated a new policy of paramountcy. According to this policy, the Company claimed that its authority was paramount or supreme. It could annex or threaten to annex any Indian kingdom to protect its interests. The later British policies were guided by this policy.

Three wars were fought between the British and the Marathas.
First Anglo-Maratha War - The first war ended with the Treaty of Salbai. There was no decisive victory after this war.
Second Anglo-Maratha Wan - The second war resulted in the British gaining Orissa, Agra and Delhi.
Third Anglo-Maratha War - The third war broke the power of the Marathas. The Company now had complete control over the territories south of the Vindhyas.

Any thing which is used to statisfy human needs ,provided,it is technologically accessible , economivally feasible and culturally acceptable are called resources. Example - coal,water,air,minerals,etc.,

Resources can be:

1.origin-biotic or aboitic

2.exhaustability-renewable or non renewable

3.ownership-induvidual,community,national and international

4.state of development-potential,developed and stock

The British had come to India as traders. However, their ambition kept growing and so started the fortification of the port cities. After establishing its monopoly in Indian trade after removing all competing European traders, the English aimed for imperialism.  The gradual interference in Indian politics helped the British to win the Diwani rights of Bengal. Later following several instruments such as subsidiary alliance and imposing cultural superiority of British culture over the orient East, they reduced India to a weak but resourceful colony. 

The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution in the world. It is a set of rules by which the government rules our country. It is the supreme law of the land. It came into effect on 26th January 1950. Our Constitution is based on the principles of democracy, socialism and secularism.

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar is known as ‘The Father of Indian Constitution‘.

The Constitution of India is the supreme law in India. The constitution is the framework for political principles, procedures, and powers of government. The constitution was written on 26 November 1949, and was made the center of law in 26 January 1950. The constitution of India is the framework for political principles, procedures and powers of the government. It is also the longest constitution in the world with 395 articles and 12 schedules. Originally it consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules.

The history of the British Raj refers to the period of British rule on the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The system of governance was instituted in 1858 when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India). It lasted until 1947, when the British provinces of India were partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, leaving the princely states to choose between them. The two new dominions later became the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (the eastern half of which, still later, became the People's Republic of Bangladesh). The province of Burma in the eastern region of the Indian Empire had been made a separate colony in 1937 and became independent in 1948.

The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution in the world. It is a set of rules by which the government rules our country. It is the supreme law of the land. It came into effect on 26th January 1950. Our Constitution is based on the principles of democracy, socialism and secularism.

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar is known as ‘The Father of Indian Constitution‘.

• Water is the medium through which all essential vitamins and minerals are transported in the bodies of living organisms (owing to its ability to dissolve a wide range of substances).
• Water also plays a vital role in facilitating the work of enzymes in living organisms. For example, the sodium bicarbonate secreted by the pancreas is broken down into ions by water, making the medium sufficiently alkaline for the enzymes to work.
• Water helps maintain body temperatures in plants and animals. In order to decrease the temperature in their bodies, animals lose water via perspiration (sweating) and plants lose water via transpiration.
• Since water can rise in capillary tubes without any external help, it can be transported from the roots of trees to every other part of the tree.
• Water is an integral part of photosynthesis. Without it, autotrophic plants would not be able to produce their own food.
• Water serves as a habitat for more than 50% of all life on Earth.

A ubiquitous resource is a natural resource that is available just about anywhere you live.  Resources that are found everywhere like the air that we breathe are ubiquitous resources. Air, wind, and water are all ubiquitous resources. Air is an ubiquitous resource means air can be found everywhere in the world. It is present in every nook and cranny and we do not have to deliberately place it somewhere. Air fills in every open space in the world. It is found inside a closed box too. 

Contour ploughing or contour farming is the farming practice of ploughing and/or planting across a slope following its elevation contour lines. These contour lines create a water break which reduces the formation of rills and gullies during times of heavy water run-off; which is a major cause of soil erosion. Hence,  this practise is used to minimise soil erosion.  Contour ploughing mitigates the impacts of floods, storms and landslides on the crops by reducing soil erosion up to 50 percent, controlling runoff water, increasing moisture infiltration and retention and thus enhancing soil quality and composition.

In 2018, the United States was the world's largest natural gas producer in the world, producing 863 billion cubic meters.  The United States surpassed Russia in 2011 to become the world's largest producer of natural gas and surpassed Saudi Arabia in 2018 to become the world's largest producer of petroleum. Russia is the world's leading exporter of gas, exporting 223 billion cubic meters of pipeline gas in 2018 and 24.9 billion cubic meters of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Qatar is the second-largest natural gas exporter globally, followed by Norway and the United States.

Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz (especially siliciclastic rocks) or calcite (especially carbonate rocks). In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. Thus the most important minerals in clastic sedimentary rocks are quartz, potassium feldspar (microcline and orthoclase), plagioclase, clays, and oxides/hydroxy-oxides (hematite, limonite, goethite).

Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. ... The word "culture" derives from a French term, which in turn derives from the Latin "colere," which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. There are seven elements, or parts, of a single culture. They are social organization, customs, religion, language, government, economy, and arts.

Classification of natural resources on the basis of distribution:

1. Ubiquitous Resource: Resources which are available everywhere on the earth are called ubiquitous resources, e.g. air and water.
2. Localised Resource: Resources which are available at select locations on the earth are called localized resources, e.g. coal mines in Jharkhand. Topography, climate and altitude are the major factors which affect the distribution of natural resources.

Classification of natural resources on the basis of their exhaustibility:

1. Renewable Resource: Resources which can be quickly replenished are called renewable resources, e.g. wind energy, hydel energy, solar energy, etc.
2. Non-renewable Resource: Resources which cannot be replenished in the near future are called non-renewable resources, e.g. coal and petroleum. It takes millions of years for the formation of coal and petroleum and hence they cannot be replenished in our lifetime.

Classification of natural resources on the basis of origin:

1. Abiotic Resource: Resources which come from non-living sources are called abiotic resources, e.g. soil, rocks and minerals.
2. Biotic Resource: Resources which come from living beings are called biotic resource, e.g. milk, leather, timber, etc.

Natural resources can be classified on the basis of their level of development and use, origin, stock and distribution.

Classification of natural resources on the basis of development and use:

1. Actual Resource: Resources whose quantity is known and which are being used at present are called actual resources, e.g. coal and petroleum.
2. Potential Resource: Resources whose entire quantity may not be known and which are not being used at present are called potential resources. Potential resources can be used in future once technology for that is properly developed. For example; uranium reserves in Ladakh.

Museums and archives have helped in providing information about the history of India by preserving objects and documents about the past. Such objects and documents contain material and written records of the past. Such information allows historians to acquire more knowledge of the past. 

Man-made
1) Man made resource is taking place with the act of humans.
2) Man made resource can cause harm to us.
3) Man made resource also takes place with the knowledge of human.
4) example:electricity,coal,mobile.........
Natural-resource
1) Naturally taking place.
2) Least or no harm to us.
3) Natural resource takes place with the knowledge of nature.
4) example:sun,moon,earth,stars...........

The modern period in India is associated with the establishment of British colonial rule and the fight we put up against it. It also cover socio-cultural change that came about in India under the influence of the British.

Biotic Resources:  These are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries,  livestock, etc. 

Abiotic Resources: All those things which are composed of non-living things are called abiotic resources. For example, sunlight, temperature, minerals, etc.

• A constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way in which they want the country to be governed. This includes not only the type of government they want but also an agreement on certain ideals that they all believe the country should uphold.
• Principles and ideals of a monarchy are quite different from those of a democracy. Therefore, soon after the transition in the government system in Nepal, the government started the process of making a new constitution of Nepal, because the earlier one did not suit their new democratic setup.
• Nepal was in need to change all its constitutive rules in order to usher in a new democratic society.
• The constitution defines the nature of a country’s political system. In a monarchy, the king or queen is the supreme power, whereas in a democracy, people rule the country and the government is run by the representatives elected by people at large.
• The constitution also prescribes rules that guard against misuse of power by the leaders. In the constitution of India, such provisions have been made in the section on Fundamental Rights.
• The Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality to all citizens. It is one of the fundamental rights, and says that no citizen can be discriminated against on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender, or place of birth.
• The constitution ensures that a dominant group does not use its power against other, less powerful people or groups.
• The constitution also contains rules that ensure that minorities are not excluded from anything that is normally available to the majorities. The constitution thus prevents tyranny of or domination by the majority.
• The constitution also helps to protect us against any short-term decisions we might take that could adversely affect the fundamental, long-term principles we believe in.

A leader misusing his power may send his security guards to beat up his neighbours for a personal reason or ask the police not to take action against a relative who has committed a crime.

Indian society underwent many changes after the British came to India. In the 19th century, certain social practices like female infanticide, child marriage, sati, polygamy and a rigid caste system became more prevalent. These practices were against human dignity and values. The resultant change began at first in Bengal and then spread to other parts of India. In place of former social divisions new class divisions began to rise. Despite difference in wealth, education, profession, the people belonging to different communities formed a new class which came to be known as the middle class.