A set of written rules and regulations, according to which a country is governed is known as constitution

James Mill was a economic and political philosopher. He introduced Indian history mainly in 3 volume work. A history of British India. In this he divided Indian history in 3 categories Hindu, Muslim and British. ????

Forests have perennial trees of Sal, Sheesham, Teak, Banyan, Neem, Peepal, Bamboo, etc.

A forest has annual, biennial and perennial plants. Herbs are mostly annuals with a life span of one year. Biennials have a life span of two years whereas perennials can survive for several years. These include shrubs and trees.

The trees produce enough seeds and the forest floor provides favourable conditions for them to germinate and develop into seedlings.

The trees in the forests are of different shapes and heights. The branching part of the tree above the stem is called its crown. It is formed of branches and leaves. These crowns are of different types and sizes and form horizontal layers in the forests. The trees that are not as tall as canopy trees, form different layers or tiers under the canopy are called understoreys.

Vegetation region can be divided into 5 types forest , graasland ,tundra ,desert and lcesheet

Vegetation regions can be divided into 5 types forest ,grassland ,tundra,desert and Icesheet.

Vegetation regions can be divided into five major types: forest, grassland, tundra, desert, and ice sheet. Climate, soil, the ability of soil to hold water, and the slope, or angle, of the land all determine what types of plants will grow in a particular region. Vegetation of India can be divided into five types – Tropical evergreen forest, Tropical deciduous forest, Thorny bushes, Mountain vegetation and Mangrove forests.

Insects pollinate many of our fruits, flowers, and vegetables. ... Insects are very important as primary or secondary decomposers. Without insects to help break down and dispose of wastes, dead animals and plants would accumulate in our environment and it would be messy indeed. Birds help maintain sustainable population levels of their prey and predator species and, after death, provide food for scavengers and decomposers. Many birds are important in plant reproduction through their services as pollinators or seed dispersers.

Seven Ways to Conserve Water

1. Only Run Water-Using Appliances When They're Full. ...
2. Fix Drips By Replacing Worn Tap Washers. ...
3. Incorporate Water Conservation Into Your Landscaping. ...
4. Reduce the Amount of Water Used by Toilets. ...
5. Consider a WaterSense Labeled Shower Head. ...
6. Install a Rain Barrel. ...
7. Compost Food Waste Instead of Using Your Garbage Disposal.

Three measures to conserve ecosystem are the following :
(i) Forest should be reserved and more and trees should be planted across the region especially in those areas where deforestation takes place.
(ii) Wildlife must be protected by enacting laws and creating awareness among people.
(iii) Starting various projects to save endangered species of plants and wildlife.

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Contaminants are defined as “substances (i.e. chemical elements and compounds) or groups of substances that are toxic, persistent and liable to bioaccumulate, and other substances or groups of substances which give rise to an equivalent level of concern”. Examples of chemical contaminants include nitrogen, bleach, salts, pesticides, metals, toxins produced by bacteria, and human or animal drugs. Biological contaminants are organisms in water. They are also referred to as microbes or microbiological contaminants.

:-climate change. Increasing humman population. Over use of water by hummans. Wastage of water. These are few points on water scarcity

Economic water scarcity is caused by a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers or other water sources, or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the demand for water. One-quarter of the world's population is affected by economic water scarcity. Growing population, over-exploitation and unequal distribution of water among social groups are the main causes of water scarcity.

Major Causes Of Water Scarcity

• Climate change.
• Natural calamities such as droughts and floods.
• Increased human consumption.
• Overuse and wastage of water.
• A global rise in freshwater demand.
• Overuse of aquifers and its consequent slow recharge.

1. For administrative and economic reasons, the British government tried settling the jhum or shifting cultivators. However, settled plough cultivation did not prove to be helpful to these jhum cultivators.
2. They often suffered because their fields did not produce good yields. The new forest laws also affected the lives of the shifting cultivators.
3.  Shifting or jhum cultivation is usually done on small patches of forest land. Under the forest laws, the British extended their control over all forests and declared that forests were state property.
4. Thus, the jhum cultivators were prevented from practising jhum cultivation freely. Many were forced to move to other areas in search of work and livelihood.

Con sa chapter

Three features of the India Constitution are:

• The Indian Constitution is considered as one of the lengthiest Constitutions in the world.Originally, the Constitution had 395 Articles and 8 Schedules. Over the years, several amendments have been made to our Constitution which has made it more voluminous. 

• India has a Parliamentary system of government. In a Parliamentary form of government, the Parliament of the country has the powers to make and execute laws.

• The Constitution of India gives single citizenship to the people of the country. All the people irrespective of the states or territories in which they reside are the citizens of the country. This is unlike USA, where a citizen is a citizen of USA and the state in which he/she resides.

The Permanent Settlement of Bengal was brought into effect by the East India Company headed by the Governor-General Lord Cornwallis in 1793. 

The right to freedom is a cluster of many freedoms like

Freedom of speech and expression, which enable an individual to participate in public activities.

Freedom to assemble peacefully without arms, on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions.

Freedom to form associations or unions on which the State can impose reasonable restrictions.

Freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India though reasonable restrictions. For example, restrictions may be imposed on movement and travelling, so as to control epidemics.

Freedom to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India which is also subject to reasonable restrictions to safeguard or protect indigenous and tribal peoples from exploitation and coercion.

Freedom to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business on which the State may impose reasonable restrictions for example there is no right to carry on a business which is dangerous or immoral.

Any other founded from Google ... ??

Before independence, Britishers forced Indian farmers to cultivate indigo only for their own benefit. They were not allowed to grow any other crop but indigo.

Even after being forced to cultivate indigo, the workers were not given good value for their crop. Once they grew indigo on their field, the fertility of their farm got destroyed and they could not cultivate any other crop on it.

The British built a network of roads, railways, post and telegraph systems in the country. This led to increased movements of people from one part of the country to another and increased the flow of information. All this accelerated the rise of a national movement in India. Various factors such as common race, language, religion, aims and aspirations, culture and shared past gave rise to nationalism in Europe. Explanation: Various factors such as common race , language, religion, aims and aspirations , culture and shared past give rise to nationalism in Europe.

The best method of retaining moisture in the soil is by amending the top 6-12 inches of the soil. To do this, till or mix in organic materials that have high water holding capacity. For instance, sphagnum peat moss can hold 20 times its weight in water. Humus rich compost also has high moisture retention. Mulching can retain up to 80 percent of added moisture in your soil. When you keep the top of the soil protected from direct heat, it will lose less water, and thus be a better environment for your plants.

The British clash with Siraj-ud-daulah the Nawab of Bengal because Robert Clive influenced Mir Jafar, the governor of the army, and also assured him that he will be the Nawab of Bengal. In the vague of becoming Nawab of Bengal, Mir Jafar defeated the Nawab at Plassey in 1757 and conquered Calcutta.  due to this Nawab Siraj-Ud-daulah started a campaign against Britishers by attacking cakllcuta and later killed in black hole tragedy.

The subjugation of one country by another is known as colonisation

Colonisation refers to the subjugation of one country by the other militarily advanced and a powerful nation. Colonisation results in political, economic, cultural and social changes in the subjugated country. Colonialism was a prominent phenomena beginning from the 17 till the 20th centuries. Mostly Asia and Africa was colonised by the European and Western nations.

Colonisation refers to the subjugation of one country by the other militarily advanced and a powerful nation. Colonisation results in political, economic, cultural and social changes in the subjugated country. Colonialism was a prominent phenomena beginning from the 17 till the 20th centuries. Mostly Asia and Africa was colonised by the European and Western nations.

The Army of the Mughal Empire was the force by which the Mughal emperors established their empire in the 15th century and expanded it to its greatest extent at the beginning of the 18th century. ... The army had no regimental structure and the soldiers were not directly recruited by the emperor. The Mughal army had no real divisions, though it had four types of warriors: cavalry, infantry, artillery, and navy. The cavalry held the primary role, and the others were auxiliary. ... A Mughal Infantryman Mughal cavalry also included elephants, normally used by generals. They bore well ornamented and good armor. Military technology, especially gunpowder, was improved greatly during the centuries of Mughal reign. Although the Mughals were very war-like, that was not the only thing that they did. They also found architecture, art, and commerce very important. Mughals made the Taj Mahal during Shah Jehan's rule.

The Marathas lost their best leaders in this battle which permitted weak leaders like Raghunath Rao to come up in politics. It reduced the power and prestige of the Peshwa which, ultimately, resulted in the disruption of the unity of the Marathas and led to the creation of a confederacy of the rival Maratha chiefs.

Residents appointed by the Company were very powerful. The Indian Nawabs were expected to agree to every rule laid down by the Resident. The Nawabs should be submissive to the British Government and this was ensured by the Resident. If any Nawab acted against the Resident, it resulted in war.

The East India Company set up first English factory on the banks of the river Hugli in the year 1651.

(i)This was the base from which the company’s traders, known at that time as ‘factors’, operated. The factory had a warehouse where goods for export were stored and it had offices where Company officials set.

(ii)As trade expanded, the Company persuaded merchants and traders to come and settle near the factory. By 1696 the Company began to build a fort around the settlement.

(iii)Two years later it bribed Mughal officials into giving the Company zamindari rights over three villages. One of these was Kalikata which later developed into a city, known as Calcutta.


(iv)The Company also persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting the company the right to trade duty free. The Company tried continuously to press for more concessions and manipulate existing privileges.

(v)For instance, Aurangzeb’s farman had granted only the Company the right to trade duty free. But Company officials who were carrying on private trade on the side, were expected to pay duty. But they refused to pay. This caused huge loss of revenue for Bengal.

Mam what is this answer

Not no

A leader can misuse his power by not doing right thing and may do partiality between gender, caste,religion,race or etc that is why safe guards are kept to take watch on the leader.

A leader misusing his power may send his security guards to beat up his neighbours for a personal reason or ask the police not to take action against a relative Who has committed a crime

A leader misusing his power may send his security guards to beat up his neighbours for a personal reason or ask the police not to take action against a relative who has committed a crime.

a Constitution can be described as a document outlining the basic laws or principles by which a country is to be governed The committee had to keep in mind that India was a land of many communities, languages and many religions. India was a land of diverse cultures and the Princely states in India had to be considered. The partition of the country into India and Pakistan was about to happen and the drafting committee had to bear this in mind. Finally the biggest consideration was the socio-economic condition of a majority of Indians which was in a bad state.

 a Constitution can be described as a document outlining the basic laws or principles by which a country is to be governed

The committee had to keep in mind that India was a land of many communities, languages and many religions. India was a land of diverse cultures and the Princely states in India had to be considered. The partition of the country into India and Pakistan was about to happen and the drafting committee had to bear this in mind. Finally the biggest consideration was the socio-economic condition of a majority of Indians which was in a bad state.

1. It sometimes leads to establish the majority view over the minority view.  2. Party leaders and political office holders in government control the citizens and the members of the party. 3. It does not encourage individuals to give their opinions. 4. It is a very expensive form of government because elections have to be conducted periodically to the various office. 5. It is difficult to prevent corruption and malpractices.

• Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for morality.
• Consultation in a democracy from many people leads to delays.
• Not knowing the best interest of the people by the elected leaders leads to bad decisions.
• Democracy leads to corruption for it is based on electoral competition.

1. It sometimes leads to establish the majority view over the minority view. 
2. Party leaders and political office holders in government control the citizens and the members of the party.
3. It does not encourage individuals to give their opinions.
4. It is a very expensive form of government because elections have to be conducted periodically to the various office.
5. It is difficult to prevent corruption and malpractices.

The key features of the Indian Constitution are explained below: (i)Federalism- Our Constitution has provided for a federal form of government. This means that we have government at the state level and at the centre. Panchayati Raj is the third tier of government. India is a large country with a vast number of communities living together in it. It was important to have another level of government in states so that decisions could be made for that particular area. While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on certain issues, subjects on national concern require that all of these states follow the laws of the central government. Under federalism, the states are agents of the federal government and they draw their authority from the Constitution. (ii)Parliamentary form of Government - The different tiers of government consists of representatives who are elected by the people. The Constitution of India guarantees universal adult franchise for all citizens. This means that people of India have a direct role in electing their representatives. At the same time, every citizen of the country, irrespective of his/her social background, can also contest in elections. These representatives are accountable to the people. (iii)Separation of Powers - There are three organs of the state—the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. In order to prevent the misuse of power by any one branch of the state, the Constitution says that each of these organs should exercise different powers. In this way, each organ acts as a check on the other organs of the state and this establishes a balance of power between the three. (iv)Fundamental Rights - Fundamental Rights are called the conscience of the Indian Constitution. These Rights protect against the absolute exercise of power by the state. The Constitution thus guarantees the rights of individuals against the state as well as against other individuals. (v)Secularism - It is an important feature of our Constitution. A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state religion.

Write any 3

The key features of the Indian Constitution are explained below:

(i)Federalism- Our Constitution has provided for a federal form of government. This means that we have government at the state level and at the centre. Panchayati Raj is the third tier of government. India is a large country with a vast number of communities living together in it. It was important to have another level of government in states so that decisions could be made for that particular area. While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on certain issues, subjects on national concern require that all of these states follow the laws of the central government. Under federalism, the states are agents of the federal government and they draw their authority from the Constitution.

(ii)Parliamentary form of Government - The different tiers of government consists of representatives who are elected by the people. The Constitution of India guarantees universal adult franchise for all citizens. This means that people of India have a direct role in electing their representatives. At the same time, every citizen of the country, irrespective of his/her social background, can also contest in elections. These representatives are accountable to the people.

(iii)Separation of Powers - There are three organs of the state—the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. In order to prevent the misuse of power by any one branch of the state, the Constitution says that each of these organs should exercise different powers. In this way, each organ acts as a check on the other organs of the state and this establishes a balance of power between the three.

(iv)Fundamental Rights - Fundamental Rights are called the conscience of the Indian Constitution. These Rights protect against the absolute exercise of power by the state. The Constitution thus guarantees the rights of individuals against the state as well as against other individuals.

(v)Secularism - It is an important feature of our Constitution. A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state religion.

Universal Adult Franchise means that the right to vote should be given to all adult citizens without the discrimination of caste, class, colour, religion or gender. It is based on equality, which is a basic principle of democracy.     

Universal Adult Franchise means all citizens who are 18 years and above irrespective of their caste or education, religion, colour, race and economic conditions are free to vote. However, there are exceptions like lunatics, minors, aliens etc. who are not allowed to vote. It is an essential aspect of all democracies and is based on the concept of equality.