Humans use huge amounts of water not only for drinking and washing but also in the process of production. Water for agriculture, industries, generating electricity through reservoirs of dams are the other usages. Increasing population, rising demands for food and cash crops, increasing urbanisation and rising standards of living are the major factors leading to shortages in supply of fresh water either due to drying up of water sources or water pollution. 

1. You read that one of the main functions of the judiciary is ‘upholding the law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights’. Why do you think an independent judiciary is necessary to carry out this important function?

Ans. The independence of the judiciary allows the courts to play a central role in ‘upholding the law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights’ as

• It ensures that there is no misuse of power by the legislature and the executive. Anyone can approach the courts if they believe that their rights have been violated.
• Only an independent judiciary are able to protect our Fundamental Rights. The judiciary should be above all prejudices.
• Politicians or other socially powerful people cannot use their power to change any judgment.
• Every citizen whether big or small has equal rights and he/she cannot be discriminated against any other considerations except his being Indian citizen.

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Utility is a term in economics that refers to the total satisfaction received from consuming a good or service. ... The economic utility of a good or service is important to understand, because it directly influences the demand, and therefore price, of that good or service. In economics, utility refers to the satisfaction gained from consuming a good or service. Total utility is usually defined as a quantifiable summation of satisfaction or happiness obtained from consuming multiple units of a particular good or service.

The minority (boys) will feel dominated by the majority (girls) if the girls try to misuse their majority against the boys

Eg. The girls want to play basketball while the boys want to play football. In this case the girls request for a show of hands and due to the boys being a minority they lose.In this case the minority will feel dominated by the majority.

1. Open cast mining in which large pits are dug to excavate the ores lying at shallow depths beneath the surface of the earth. Minerals that lie near the surface are also dug out by the process of quarrying.
2. Deep shaft mining in which deep holes are made to reach the ore lying at great depth beneath the crust.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy:

1) Nuclear reactions release a million times more energy, as compared to hydro or wind energy. Hence, a

large amount of electricity can be generated. 2) The biggest advantage of nuclear energy is that it

does not generate any greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide , ozone, methane etc.)

3) Nuclear reactor uses uranium as fuel and we have

high reserves of uranium in earth.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy:

1) The waste produced after fission reactions contains unstable elements and is highly radioactive. It is very

dangerous to the environment as well as human health, and remains so, for thousands of years.

2) Though large amount of energy can be produced from a nuclear power plant, it requires large capital cost.

1. The Permanent Settlement brought about an adverse effect on the Zamidars. Many of them could not realize or collect the land revenue from the tenants and consequently could not pay the money to the government in time as a result their lands were sold.
2. The Permanent Settlement adversely affected the income of the company as the revenue was fixed quite on the low side due to lack of proper measurement.

1. Some scholars who hold the opinion that the Permanent Settlement adversely affected the interests of the landlords, peasants and the company alike.
2. The Permanent Settlement brought about an adverse effect on the Zamidars. Many of them could not realize or collect the land revenue from the tenants and consequently could not pay the money to the government in time as a result their lands were sold.
3. The Permanent Settlement adversely affected the income of the company as the revenue was fixed quite on the low side due to lack of proper measurement.
4. It hurt the national feeling of the people because this system created a special class of zamindars in the country who became the true devotees of the English.
5. It was really a great mistake on the part of Cornwallis that he deprived the majority of the cultivators of the right of ownership of land and made the landlords owners of the land.
6.The agreement of permanent Settlement Act only included the revenue earning but there was no mention of the use of the land. Thus to earn more money from the land, the Company officials and Zamindars insisted on planting Indigo and cotton rather than wheat and rice
7. This was the cause of many worst famines of the Bengal.

Q1: Which ruler first established his or her capital in Delhi?

Ans:  Ananga Pala

After the decline of the Pratiharas, the Tomaras established their dynasty around Delhi by the 10^th century. Ananga Pala, the founder of the Tomara dynasty first established his capital at Delhi in 736 CE. They were however followed by the Chauhans or Chahamanas.

The British first passed out some laws so that the rebels could be convicted with ease . the british brought reinforcements from England . then they moved in the storm centres of the rebellion . they also announced rewards for those who helped them to capture the rebels. delhi was recaptured in september 1857 . bahadur shah zafar was imprisoned in myanmar . rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858 . only in 1859 british were able to completely crush the rebellion. 

Dates help us in finding out how things were in the past, and how things change over time.

Earlier, history was an account of battles and big events, such as:

• the year some king was crowned
• the year he was married and had a child
• the year he fought a particular war or battle
• the year he died
• the year the next ruler succeeded to the throne

• We choose to write history around some dates, and then those dates become important. This happens because people focus on some major events (wars, for example) that they believe are important. But with time, a new set of events might come into focus, and new dates become important.
• Also, histories written by and about British Governor Generals do not give us a correct picture of the status and everyday activities of ordinary Indians. So history is actually very different for different people.

Yes, the Government can intervene if some religious group says that their religion allows them to practice infanticide. This is because the Indian Constitution clearly states that the Government has the right to intervene if there is a threat to social harmony. Also, killing an infant is a crime and the judiciary is the only authority that can punish a person to death and no other religion or person can commit the crime of killing someone.

Yes, the Government will definitely intervene if some religious group says that their religion allows them to practice infanticide. Infanticide involves the killing of an infant (a small child) which is clearly a cruel crime

Secularism refers to the separation of religion from the state. It means that the state should not discriminate among its citizens on the basis of religion. It should neither encourage nor discourage the followers of any religion.

Parliament enables citizens of India to participate in decision making and control the government, thus making it the most important symbol of Indian democracy and a key feature of the Constitution.

The Role of the Parliament:

(i) The Indian Parliament is an expression of the faith that the people of India have in the principles of democracy.
(ii) The Parliament in our system has immense powers because it is the representative of the people.
(iii) The Lok Sabha is elected once every five years. The country is divided into a number of these constituencies. Each of these constituencies elect one person to the parliament.
(iv) Once elected, the candidates become members of parliament or MPs. These MPs together make up the Parliament.

Common property resources (environmental) are natural resources owned and managed collectively by a community or society rather than by individuals. The use of the term "common property resource" to designate a type of good has been criticized, because common-pool resources are not necessarily governed by common property protocols. Examples of common-pool resources include irrigation systems, fishing grounds, pastures, forests, water or the atmosphere.

We can conserve our land resources by adopting the following measures:

1. By educating, informing and sensitizing all landholders about various aspects of this precious resources and their sustainable use.

2. Contour ploughing is another measure to conserve our land. By this method, the fields are ploughed, harrowed and sown along the natural contour of the hills.

3. By terracing method: A series of wide steps are made along the slop following the contours. This method is very common in rice growing regions.

4. Under the afforestation and reforestation programmes, planting of trees, bushes and grass help to check the soil erosion,

5. Strict actions are taken to check reckless felling of trees and overgrazing.

6. Shelter belts (rows of trees) are planted on the margins of desert areas to check the fury of wind.

7. Construction of dams and gully-trap inculcate the water-harvesting.

Measures to Conserve the Land Resources:

1. Afforestation.
2. Proper management of grazing.
3. Stabilisation of sand dunes by plantation of thorny bushes.
4. Proper management of waste lands.
5. By proper irrigation.
6. By proper harvesting.
7. Control over mining activities.
8. Proper management of land after completion of mining work.

Soil is composed of distinct layers. The rotting matter in the soil is called humus. A vertical section through the soil showing the different layers of soil is called soil profile. Soil profile consists of three different layers of soil. Each layer of soil is called a horizon. The three layers of soil in the soil profile are:

1. A-horizon or Top-soil: The uppermost horizon is generally dark in colour as it is rich in minerals and humus. The humus makes the soil fertile and provides nutrients to growing plants. This layer is generally soft, porous and can retain more water. The plant roots grow in the top soil. This layer contains many living things like worms, rodents, and moles etc. Bacteria and fungi also occur in top soil. This layer contains lot of dead and decaying matter which makes it the most fertile layer. It is called the topsoil or the A-horizon.
2. B-horizon or Subsoil: The layer of soil which is just below the top-soil is called B-horizon. This layer has a lesser amount of humus but more of minerals. This layer is generally harder and more compact and made up of slightly bigger rock particles than that of top-soil. The subsoil is light in color compared to upper layer.
3. C-horizon or Sub-stratum: The third layer is the C-horizon, which is made up of small lumps of rocks with cracks and crevices. Below this layer is the bedrock, which is hard and difficult to dig with a spade.

The soil profile could be seen below the top surface by looking g at the sides of a recently dug trench or can be seen at the sides of a road on the hill or a steep river bank.

They feared that the executive might become too strong and ignore its responsibility to the legislature

Members of the Parliament.

In a democracy general elections are held and all adults have a right to vote. The citizens elect a few people to represent them in the Parliament. The Parliament is made up of all these representatives. These representatives are known as Members of the Parliament. One group, from among these elected representatives forms the government. It is through these representatives that the citizens take part in the decision-making of the government.

The members of lok sabha are known as MPs. An MP can become a minister in the Union cabinet.

Part III

• Fundamental Rights - Articles 12-35 (Part III of Indian Constitution) Articles 12-35 of Indian Constitution deal with Fundamental Rights.
• These human rights are conferred on the citizens of India for Constitution tells that these rights are inviolable. Right to Life, Right to Dignity, Right to Education etc. all come under one of the six main fundamental rights.

Classification of natural resources on the basis of their availability of supply or exhaustibility:

1. Renewable Resource: Resources which can be quickly replenished are called renewable resources, e.g. wind energy, hydel energy, solar energy, etc.
2. Non-renewable Resource: Resources which cannot be replenished in the near future are called non-renewable resources, e.g. coal and petroleum. It takes millions of years for the formation of coal and petroleum and hence they cannot be replenished in our lifetime.

Fundamental Rights: The section on Fundamental Rights has often been referred to as the ‘conscience’ of the Indian Constitution. Fundamental Rights, protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the State. The Constitution, thus, guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as against other individuals. The Constitution, also guarantees the rights of minorities against the majority.

In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution also has a section called Directive Principles of State Policy. This section was designed by the members of the Constituent Assembly to ensure greater social and economic reform, and to serve as a guide to the independent Indian State to institute laws and policies that help reduce the poverty of the masses.