COTTON TEXTILES INDUSTRY

This is one of the oldest industries. Till the industrial revolution in the 18th century, manual labour was used for making cotton cloths. After the industrial revolution, power looms replaced handlooms and it helped in expansion of cotton textiles industry. The expansion of cotton textiles industry first took place in Britain and then in other parts of the world.

At present; India, China, Japan and USA are the major producers of cotton textiles.

Indian cotton textiles were in great demand because of their fine quality and craftsmanship. The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were very popular around the world.

But after the industrial revolution in Britain, the Indian cotton textiles could not compete with machine made cloths from Britain.

Energy is required for all activities. It is needed to cook, to provide light and heat, to propel vehicles and to drive machinery in industries.
Energy is the basic requirement in economic development. Every sector of economy needs to greater input of energy.
Energy resources can be conserved in different ways.

• By switching off electricity when not in use.
• By using power saving devices.
• By using non-conventional sources of energy.

Hindu Succession Amendment Act, 2005 brought females on the same level with males. Till recently, prior to the new law Hindu women did not get a share in the family's agricultural land. After the death of the father his property was divided equally only among his sons. But now the situation has been changed. In the new law sons, daughters and their mothers can get an equal share in the land. The same law will apply to all states and union territories of the country. The new law will benefit a large number of women. Now they can enjoy their independent status with equal rights.

The rule of law means is that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law. Neither a government official nor a wealthy person nor even the President of the country is above the law. All persons in independent India are equal before the law. The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender. There is a specific punishment for every crime or violation of law and also a specific process through which the guilt of the person has to be established. The punishment for any crime committed will be the same for every person, irrespective of his power or position.

For example, there are many politicians who own property worth crores but they do not even pay tax for the same. While filing the tax return, they show only a part of their total property and wealth. However, they are not questioned for this by the ordinary income tax officials because the officials have the fear of losing their jobs. This shows how people in power can easily violate the laws.

Birsa Munda's vision of a golden age was a satyug (the age of truth) – when Mundas  would live a good life, construct embankments, tap natural springs, plant trees and orchards, practise cultivation to earn their living. They will not kill their brethren and relatives. They would live honestly. Birsa also wanted people to once again work on their land, settle down and cultivate their fields.

Such a vision appealed to the people of the region because they were very much eager to lead a free life. They had got fed up with the colonial forest laws and the restrictions that were imposed on them.

The first governor-general in India was Warren Hastings, the first official governor-general of British India was Lord William Bentinck, and the first governor-general of the Dominion of India was Lord Mountbatten.

Unicameral Legislature

It is a form of the legislature where only one house (one central unit) exists to make and implement laws for the state/country

Bicameral Legislature 

It is a legislative body with two houses. India is one such example where there are two houses both at union and also at 6 of its 29 states. In a bicameral legislature, the function to administer and implement the laws are shared between the two houses.

Out of 29 Indian States, there are 25 states which have a unicameral structure. The list of these states are given below:

1. Arunachal Pradesh
2. Assam
3. Chhattisgarh
4. Delhi
5. Goa
6. Gujarat
7. Haryana
8. Himachal Pradesh
9. Jammu and Kashmir
10. Jharkhand
11. Kerala
12. Madhya Pradesh
13. Manipur
14. Meghalaya
15. Mizoram
16. Nagaland
17. Odisha
18. Puducherry
19. Punjab
20. Rajasthan
21. Sikkim
22. Tamil Nadu
23. Tripura
24. Uttarakhand
25. West Bengal

a. The traders were keen on buying forest produce from the tribals, offering them cash , loans and also offered them to work for wages.
b. The traders who purchased goods from the tribals offered and gave very less price to them.
c. They further sold the products at higher prices, making huge amount of profits.
d. In this way the traders indulged in massive exploitation of the tribals.
e. We may give example of silk, as to how santhal tribes were paid meagerly while the traders prospered.
f. Such was the problem that tribal groups faced with the traders, who considered them as their enemies.
g. Likewise, moneylenders offered loans to tribals to meet their requirement for cash to produce goods , but they charged high rate interest from them. Thus, tribals faced the problem of repaying the loans and were burdened with huge debts. This became the cause for their terrible plight and misery.

The climate of any particular place is influenced by a host of interacting factors. These include latitude, elevation, nearby water, ocean currents, topography, vegetation, and prevailing winds. The global climate system and any changes that occur within it also influence local climate. 

Cultivation on planters own land was referred to as open field system.

The traditional medieval system of farming in England, in which land was divided into strips and managed by an individual only in the growing season, being available to the community for grazing animals during the rest of the year.

The large parts of England the country side was open. It was not partitioned into enclosed lands privately owned by landlords.

Peasants cultivated on strips of land around the village they lived in.

Beyond these strips of cultivation lay the common land. All villagers had access to the commons.

Here, they pastured their cows and grazed their sheep, collected fuel wood for fire and berries and fruits for food.

Answer: Periodization in history has changed over  time. We divide history into periods on the basis of something which has had a profound impact on the way we live. For e.g.- some historians say that the change from the ancient to the medieval period occurred with the arrival of Turks in India. Similarly, the change from medieval to modern occurred with the arrival of the British on the shores of India.

Domestic violence refers to the injury or harm or threat of injury or harm caused by an adult male, usually the husband, against his wife. Injury may be caused by physically beating up the woman or by emotionally abusing her. Abuse of the woman can also include verbal, sexual and economic abuse.
The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 extends the understanding of the term ‘domestic’ to include all women who ‘live or have lived together in a shared household’ with the male member who is perpetrating the violence

1.Orientalists gave deep respect for ancient cultures both of India and the west.

2.Orientalists thought that in order to understand India it was necessary to discover the sacred and legal texts that were produced in the ancient period.

3.Orientalists thought that understanding the sacred texts of India could reveal the real ideas and laws of Hindus and Muslims and only a new study of these texts could form the basis of future development in India. ..

The following were the provision English Education Act 1835:

(i) English was made the medium of instruction for higher education.
(ii)Promotion of Oriental institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa and Benaras Sanskrit College was stopped. These institutions were seen as temples of darkness that were falling of themselves into decay.
(iii)English textbooks began to be produced for schools.

The company wanted to educate some of influential Indians and thereby win the confidence of the upper classes and consolidate its rule in India. So the Company established some centres of higher learning for the Hindus and the Muslims. British rule is said to have been responsible for the modernization witnessed in the Indian civilization. The impact of this process was quiet evident from the changes adopted by the Indians in their life style, thinking processes, attires, food and education. The East India Company was an English company formed for the exploitation of trade with East and Southeast Asia and India. Incorporated by royal charter on December 31, 1600, it was started as a monopolistic trading body so that England could participate in the East Indian spice trade.

Mahatma Gandhi Views on Caste System! Gandhi believed that Hindu society in its pristine state – during the Vedic times – was based on Varnashramadharma, or the law of varna and ashrama. According to Gandhi, this was society's “predominant characteristic”. Gandhian ideology is the set of religious and social ideas adopted and developed by Mahatma Gandhi, first during his period in South Africa from 1893 to 1914, and later in India. Gandhian philosophy is not only simultaneously political, moral and religious, it is also traditional and modern, simple and complex.

The people of our country namely India was very affected by the unsuitable policies made by the East India company which was setup In Surat and from that it expand it's production all over our country and we had to faced many problems. A section of Indians resented attempts at social reforms because they were conservatives and believed in following ancient customs and traditions. Other reason was that a group of people did not like British to interfere in Indian religious practises (by passing various laws).

From Meerut to Delhi:

1. On 29 March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a young soldier was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore and soldiers also rebelled against the use of greased cartridges.
2. In response to this revolt, soldiers were captured and were put in jail.
3. The response of the other Indian soldiers in Meerut was quite extraordinary, they marched to the jail to Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys.
4. The sepoys rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi.
5. The regiments stationed in Delhi also rose up in rebellion and many British officers were killed, arms and ammunition seized, buildings set on fire.
6. The soldiers forcibly met Bahadur Shah Zafar and proclaimed him as their leader.
7. Bahadur Shah accepted the rebellion’s plea & called regional rulers to fight against British.

The British changed their policies as a result of rebellion of 1857 in these ways.

1) British queen Elizabeth I took charge of administration and British Parliament passed an act in 1859. The powers of the East India Company were taken back and transferred to the British crown.

2) The rulers of Indian princely states were given assurance that their territories would not be annexed by the British. But the Indian rulers had to be loyal towards the British crown.

3) The British assured the land owners by making policies which protect their land.

4) The British reorganized their army by reducing the number of Indian soldiers and increasing the number of European soldiers.

5) The British decided to respect the customary religions and social practices of the people in India.

The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment. His sons were shot dead before his eyes. He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862.

The new cartridges were suspected of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs. Both Hindus and Muslim sepoys were offended by the introduction of these cartridges. Their religious sentiments were affected, and this was the reason they refused to use the cartridges. They felt that the British were trying to insult their religion.

Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi demanded the company to recognize her adopted son as the heir of the kingdom after the death of her husband. But the British refused to accept her adopted son as the ruler of Jhansi. By ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ introduced by Lord Dalhousie, if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his kingdom would ‘lapse’ and such kingdom would be annexed by the British Empire. However, the Company, confident of its superiority and military powers, turned down her pleas.

There was a wide spread impact on the people of the whole country and its ruling families after Bahadur Shah Zafar's support to the rebellion. These were:

• He wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward and organize a confederacy of Indian states to fight with Britishers. All small and big kingdoms, kings, Nawabs, Rajas, princes, zamindars, chiefs and even many Hindu and Muslim religious leaders welcomed this initial step taken by the Emperor and joined hands to rebel against the British.
• Regiment after regiment mutinied and started to join other troops at nodal points like- Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.
• The people of towns and villages also joined the rebellion in mass and rallied around local leaders, zamindars and rulers who were prepared to regain their lost authority and fight against the British.

Sedition Act of 1870 is an example of arbitrariness that continued to exist as part of British law. The idea of sedition was very broadly understood within this act. Any person protesting or criticising the British government could be arrested without due trial of court procedure.