• This system of land revenue was instituted in the late 18th century by Sir Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras in 1820.
• This was practised in the Madras and Bombay areas, as well as Assam and Coorg provinces.
• In this system, the peasants or cultivators were regarded as the owners of the land. They had ownership rights, could sell, mortgage or gift the land.
• The taxes were directly collected by the government from the peasants.
• The rates were 50% in dryland and 60% in the wetland.
• The rates were high and unlike the Permanent System, they were open to being increased.
• If they failed to pay the taxes, they were evicted by the government.
• Ryot means peasant cultivators.

The company brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so that the rebels could be convicted with ease, and then moved into the storm centres of the revolt. Delhi was recaptured from the rebel forces in September 1857.
 

The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life imprisonment. His sons were shot dead before his eyes. He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862.

The recapture of Delhi, however, did not mean that the rebellion died down after that. People continued to resist and battle the British. The British had to fight for two years to suppress the massive forces of popular rebellion.

ideas of freedom, equality and participation

India became independent on 15 August 1947. Many sections of society participated in the struggle. People from various backgrounds joined the struggle and they were inspired by the ideas of freedom, equality and participation in decision making. Under colonial rule, the people had lived in fear of the British government and did not agree with many of the decisions that they took. But they faced grave danger if they tried to criticise these decisions. The freedom movement changed this situation. The nationalists began to openly criticise the British government and make demands. 

The British had tried their best to win back the loyalty of the people.

They announced rewards for loyal landholders would be allowed to continue to enjoy traditional rights over their lands. Those who had rebelled were told that if they submitted to the British, and if they had not killed any white people, they would remain safe and their rights and claims to land would not be denied.

The Mughal dynasty had ruled over a large part of the country. Most smaller rulers and chieftains controlled different territories on behalf of the Mughal ruler. Threatened by the expansion of British rule, many of them felt that if the Mughal emperor could rule again, they too would be able to rule their own territories once more, under the Mughal authority.

Birsa Munda was a young freedom fighter and a tribal leader, whose spirit of activism in the late nineteenth century, is remembered to be a strong mark of protest against British rule in India. Born and raised in the tribal belt around Bihar and Jharkhand, Birsa Munda’s achievements are known to be even more remarkable by virtue of the fact that he came to acquire them before he was 25. In recognition of his impact on the nationals movement, the state of Jharkhand was created on his birth anniversary in 2000.

Born on November 15, 1875, Birsa spent much of his childhood moving from one village to another with his parents. He belonged to the Munda tribe in the Chhotanagpur Plateau area. He received his early education at Salga under the guidance of his teacher Jaipal Nag. On the recommendation of Jaipal Nag, Birsa converted to Christianity in order to join the German Mission school. He, however, opted out of the school after a few years

Federalism: This refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. In India, we have governments at the state level and at the centre. Panchayati Raj is the third tier of government. While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on certain issues, subjects of national concern require that all of these states follow the laws of the central government. Under federalism, the states are not merely agents of the federal government but draw their authority from the Constitution as well. All persons in India are governed by laws and policies made by each of these levels of government.

 It’s not easy to become a Judge in any country. Due to this, not only India but every democratic country is facing the shortage of judges. It creates problem while the court workdays are going on. Since, there is a shortage of judges, a judge may take many days to deliver a verdict. 

This process has an impact on the whole judgement system due to which the whole procedure is delayed. Sometimes, this delay benefits even the actual culprit.

n law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of courts which administers justice in the name of the state. It is the mechanism for the resolution of disputes and pronouncement of punishment. As an organ of the State, the judiciary plays a crucial role in the functioning of India’s democracy.

Question 3
How is the work of the judiciary categorised?
Solution:
The Judiciary comprises of courts that take decisions on a very large number of issues. The work of the judiciary can be divided into 3 categories, namely Dispute Resolution, Judicial Review and upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights.

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European colonialism began in the fifteenth century when the Spanish and Portuguese began exploring the Americas, and the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and East Asia. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, England, France and Holland made their own overseas empires. Modern colonialism started with the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator, initiating the Age of Exploration. Spain (initially the Crown of Castile) and soon later Portugal encountered the Americas through sea travel and built trading posts or conquered large extensions of land. Colonization, or colonisation refers to large-scale population movements where the migrants maintain strong links with their or their ancestors' former country, gaining significant privileges over other inhabitants of the territory by such links.

The Calico Acts banned the import of most cotton textiles into England, followed by the restriction of sale of most cotton textiles. It was a form of economic protectionism, largely in response to India, which dominated world cotton textile markets at the time. The Calico Acts (1690–1721) banned the import of textiles into England, followed by the restriction of sale of most cotton textiles. The English East India Company quickly embraced the demand for calico, importing exotic textiles from around the globe into England and creating competition for domestic woollen textiles. The calico question was one of the major issues of National politics between the 1690s and the 1730s. Parliament began to see a decline in domestic textile sales, and an increase in imported textiles from places like China and India. Seeing the East India Company and their textile importation as a threat to domestic textile businesses, Parliament passed the Calico Acts as an attack on textile importation. Dissatisfied with the smuggling of outside textiles after the original Calico Acts; in 1721, Parliament passed a stricter addition to the original Calico Acts, this time, prohibiting the sale of most cottons, imported and domestic (exempting only thread and raw cotton), and promoting the sale of wool. In that decade, the UK was importing 1.5 million pounds of cotton; in another 70 years (1790s), the UK was importing 30 million pounds of cotton a year from India.

The Indian Constitution is called a living document because it can be amended or changed. Our Constitution accepts the necessity of modifications according to changing needs of the society. Secondly, in the actual working of the Constitution, there has been enough flexibility of interpretations. The Constitution is an instrument that societies create for themselves.Thus, both political practice and judicial rulings have shown maturity and flexibility in implementing the Constitution.

- Manufacturing industries assist in modernising agriculture and it reduce the heavy dependence on agricultural productivity.

- It generates more employment opportunities and removes unemployment and poverty level in our nation.

- It provides balanced regional growth in all areas of an economy. Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed foreign exchange.

- Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of furnished goods of higher value are prosperous.

- Industry sector contributes 27 % of GDP out of it manufacturing accounts for 17 %.

- The other ways of measuring the development of economy is to measure per capita income, total income of the country, the extent of import/export, the gdp (gross domestic produce) and the fiscal deficit.

Members of the Constituent Assembly feared that the executive might become too strong and ignore its responsibility to the legislature.

It has to start at home. Educate and practice, that is the only way it can be inculcated into the psyche of people. We all have to contribute to it, not only the government. We all always try to do things easier way. But if we first start thinking about our convenience and the environment for any action that we do probably it will help. So the change has to come in the way people start thinking about it. A few things probably we all develop that will help environment.
1. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle – the three R’s
2. Use as far as possible locally produced groceries, goods and services.
3. Make each community as self-supporting as possible.

People were dissatisfied with British rule in the 1870s and 1880s for the following reasons:

(i)The British passed the Arms Act in 1878 which disallowed Indians from possessing arms.

(ii)In the same year British passed the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an effort to silence those who were critical of the goverment. It allowed the government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their printing presses if the newspapers published anything that was critical of the government.

(iii) In 1883, the Ilbert Bill was introduced. The bill provided for the trial of British or European persons by Indians and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. But the white opposition forced the government to withdraw the bill.

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. India opted for a federal form of government because of linguistic and regional diversity. The federal system has dual objectives that is to safeguard and promote unity of the country and accommodate regional diversity.

In the British territories in the south a new system was devised which came to be known as the ryotwari system.

It was tried on a small-scale by Captain Alexander Read. Subsequently, Thomas Munro, the Governor of Madras, developed this system which was gradually extended all over south India. 

In the south there were no traditional zamindars. Hence the settlement was made directly with the cultivators or ryots who had tilled the land for generations. Their fields were separately surveyed before the revenue assessment was made.