The 1937-1947 was the crucial decade in the history of India as well as of whole South Asia. Some of the developments in this decade that lead to the creation of Pakistan are :

1.  In Provincial elections of 1937, Muslim League lost even the Muslim majority states which created fear among them about the Muslim representation.

2.  1940 Lahore session of Muslim League which adopted the resolution of two-nation theory and Muslim league began to demand separate nation for Muslims.

3.  Failure of negotiations between the Congress and Muslim League as well as of British during the Second World War. Various commissions visited during this period but could brought Muslim League and Congress together.

4.  Elections of 1946 which lead to the domination of Muslim league in Muslim majority areas. It emboldened the Muslim League and it also showed Muslims want partition.

5.  Communal riots also made the British authorities to partition India which lead to the creation of Pakistan.

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Several evils plagued Indian society in 19th century. The well known issues are that of (i) sati, (ii) child marriage, (iii) widow remarriage and (iv) caste discrimination.

Attempts: (i) It is not correct to say that attempts were not made to fight social discrimination in pre-colonial India.

(ii) Several social evils were central to Buddhism.

(iii) They were prominent to Bhakti and Sufi movements.

(iv) What marked these social evils 19th century social reform attempts was the modern context and mix of ideas.

(v) It was a creative combination of modern ideas of western liberalism and a new look on traditional literature.

some social evils prevailing in the Indian society in 19 centuries where Sati ,widow remarriage, child marriage and caste system. 

William Jones felt that the study Indian history, philosophy and law would not only help the British learn from Indian culture, but it would also help Indians rediscover their own heritage, and understand the lost glories of their past. This would also establish the British as guardians of Indian culture and gain total control.

Plantation agriculture is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown for the entire year. This type of farming requires large amount of labour and capital. The crop production may be further processed on the farm itself where it is grown or in nearby factories or small scale industries

The Permanent Settlement was introduced first in Bengal and Bihar and later in the south district of Madras and Varanasi. The system eventually spread all over northern India by a series of regulations dated 1 May 1793. These regulations remained in place until the Charter Act of 1833.

Those Congress leaders were called Moderates who were "moderate" in their objectives and methods. (i) They proposed for a greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration. (ii) They wanted the Legislative Councils to be made more representative, given more power, and introduced in provinces where not existed. (iii) They demanded that Indians be placed in high positions in the 'government. (iv) The moderate leaders wanted to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. (v) They wanted to make the government -aware of the feelings of Indians.  

Iodine essential for the synthetic

 

Practises prevalent in the Indian society against which the reformers fought were the practise of sati, caste system, exploitation of the lower caste people, female infanticide, child marriages, untouchability and the prohibition of the education of the lower caste people in the Hindu society.

• The Western education gave a number of Indians, a liberal and progressive outlook, they realized the need for social and religious reforms in the country.
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahma Sabha or Brahmo Samaj, launched a relentless struggle against Sati. He founded the Vedanta College and assisted David Hare to establish the Hindu College.
• Governor General Lord Bentinck banned Sati in 1829.
•  Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar advocated remarriage of widows; Lord Dalhousie passed the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856.

1. One example of the arbitrariness that continued to exist as part of British law is the Sedition Act of 1870. The idea of sedition was very broadly understood within this Act. Any person protesting or criticising the British government could be arrested without due trial.
2. Another example of British arbitrariness was the Rowlatt Act which allowed the British government to imprison people without due tria

Chapter 8

Give the name of chapter

After the British were routed from Delhi, there was no uprising for almost a week.  Then, a spurt of mutinies began in other parts of India.

(i)Regiment after regiment mutinied and took to join other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow. After them, the people of the towns and villages also rose up in rebellion. They rallied around local leaders, zamindars and chiefs who were prepared to establish their authority and fight the British.

(ii)Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and expelled the British Garrison from the city. He proclaimed himself Peshwa. He delcared that he was a Governor under emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.

(iii)In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed the new Nawab. He too acknowledged the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar. In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British alongwith Tantia Tope, the General of Nana Saheb.

(iv)A situation of widespread rebellion also developed in the region of Awadh. Many new leaders also came up and joined the revolt. Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, raised a large force of supporters. He came to Lucknow to fight the British.

(v)In Delhi, a large number of religious warriors came together to wipe out the white people. Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly, took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi.

Thanks

The Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement was launched by the Indian national Congress in 1920 under the leadership of Gandhi. Main causes for launching the Non-cooperation Movement were: The treatment meted out by the British government to the Caliph of Turkey disturbed the Indian Muslims as he was seen as their religious head. As a result, they started the Khilafat Movement. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to achieve the much desired Hindu-Muslim unity. He advised the Khilafat Committee to adopt a policy of non-cooperation with the British government. The Khilafat leaders agreed and campaigned accordingly. Thus, the Khilafat Movement furthered the cause of the Non-cooperation Movement. The Rowlatt Act of 1919 authorised the British government to arrest and imprison any person without trial and convict him in a court. Also, the Act implied severe restrictions on movements of individuals and suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus. This was seen as a major breach of trust by Indians who were expecting the British to deliver on their promise of providing self-government. Gandhi appealed to the Viceroy to withhold his consent to the Act but his plea fell on deaf ears. The Jalianwala Bagh massacre and the subsequent British reaction to it was a watershed event in the Indian freedom struggle. It led to a huge furor all over the country and hardened the Congress resolve to attain self government. The Rowlatt satyagraha had been a widespread movement, it was still limited mostly to cities and towns. Gandhi now felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India which finally resulted in the launching of the Non Cooperation movement.

The Khilafat Non-Cooperation Movement was launched by the Indian national Congress in 1920 under the leadership of Gandhi. Main causes for launching the Non-cooperation Movement were:

1. The treatment meted out by the British government to the Caliph of Turkey disturbed the Indian Muslims as he was seen as their religious head. As a result, they started the Khilafat Movement.
2. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to achieve the much desired Hindu-Muslim unity. He advised the Khilafat Committee to adopt a policy of non-cooperation with the British government. The Khilafat leaders agreed and campaigned accordingly. Thus, the Khilafat Movement furthered the cause of the Non-cooperation Movement.
3. The Rowlatt Act of 1919 authorised the British government to arrest and imprison any person without trial and convict him in a court. Also, the Act implied severe restrictions on movements of individuals and suspension of the Right of Habeas Corpus. This was seen as a major breach of trust by Indians who were expecting the British to deliver on their promise of providing self-government. Gandhi appealed to the Viceroy to withhold his consent to the Act but his plea fell on deaf ears.
4. The Jalianwala Bagh massacre and the subsequent British reaction to it was a watershed event in the Indian freedom struggle. It led to a huge furor all over the country and hardened the Congress resolve to attain self government.
5. The Rowlatt satyagraha had been a widespread movement, it was still limited mostly to cities and towns. Gandhi now felt the need to launch a more broad-based movement in India which finally resulted in the launching of the Non Cooperation movement. 

The first modern iron and steel factory was started at Kulti. Bengal Iron Works.Tata Iron and Steel Company Modern steel making in India began with the setting of first blast furnace of India at Kulti-Burnpur in 1870 and production began in 1874, which was set up by Bengal Iron Works.Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was established by Dorabji Tata in 1907, as part of his father's conglomerate.

tradition of Orientalism

• For this, it was necessary to study Indian history, philosophy, and law. William Jones, an expert in law and a linguist, took this task. He began to study ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion, morality, arithmetic, medicine and the other sciences.
• Englishmen like Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were also busy discovering the ancient Indian heritage, mastering Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English.
• Together with them, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and started a journal called  Asiatick Researches.
• Jones and Colebrooke shared a deep respect for the ancient culture. Both Indian and the West Indian civilisation, they felt, had attained glory in the ancient past but had subsequently declined.
• In order to understand India, it was necessary to discover the sacred and legal texts written in the ancient times.
• Jones and Colebrooke went about discovering ancient texts, understanding their meaning, translating them and making their findings known to others.
• Several company officials felt that Hindus and Muslims ought to be taught what they were already familiar with, and what they valued and treasured, instead of subjects that were alien to them.
• It was thought that this was the only way the British could win the hearts of the natives and could earn their respect.
• A  madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law; and the Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be useful for the administration of the country.
• Not all officials shared these views. Many were very strong in their criticism of the Orientalists.

Cross examine the witnesses

Explanation

 

<th scope="col">Roles</th> <th scope="col">Functions</th>

Police	Record the statements of witnesses, Take photographs of burnt homes, Record the evidence, Get the assaulted women medically examined, Meet the accused persons, Arrest the Fiesta fans
Public Prosecutor	Cross examine the witnesses, Argue the case for the victims, Examine the witnesses in court
Defence Lawyer	Cross examine the witnesses, Examine the witnesses in court
Judge	Write the judgment, Decide for how many years the accused will be put in jail, Pass the judgment, Conduct a fair trial

Crime is most important

FIR stands for First Information Report. The police have to file a FIR whenever a person gives information about a known offence. This information can be given to the police either orally or in writing. A FIR is necessary for the police to begin their investigations into a crime.

The FIR should mention the date, time and place of the offence, details about the offence, including a description of the events. The FIR should also state the name and address of the complainant. There is a prescribed form in which the police register an FIR and it is signed by the complainant. The complainant also has a legal right to get a free copy of the FIR from the police.

Any four functions of the Zila Parishad are:

1. Supervises the working of the Panchayats and the Block Samitis.
2. Acts as a link between the Panchayat and the Block Samitis.
3. Advises the State government on the working of the Panchayati Raj system.
4. Approves the budget of the Block Samitis and distributes funds among them.
5. Builds, maintains and inspects primary and secondary schools, dispensaries, health centres and hospitals.
6. Supervises the functioning of developmental programmes and is responsible for the implementation of the five-year plans.

The sources of funds for the Gram Panchayat are:

• Collection of taxes on houses, market places, etc.
• Government scheme funds received through the various departments of the government through the Janpad and Zila Panchayats.
• Donations for community works etc.

The Zila Parishad is an elected body. The members of the Zila Parishad are elected by people of a district. The members elect the two top office-bearers of the Zila Parishad- the President and the Vice-President. The other members of the Zila Parishad are as follows:

1. Chairpersons of the Block Samitis.
2. Members of Parliament and State Legislatures (Vidhan Sabha and Vidhan Parishad).
3. Important officers such as collectors, judges, police officers.
4. Members representing the Scheduled Castes, the Schedule Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
5. Women - one-third of the total seats are reserved for them.

Panchayat Samiti or Janpad Panchayat or Block Level Panchayat

Two functions of the Panchayat Samiti are:

1. To supervise and coordinate the working of the Gram Panchayats.
2. To build hospitals and provide health services with various facilities at the community block level.

Macaulay well-known Minute on Indian Education of February 1835, Macaulay urged Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General to reform secondary education on utilitarian lines to deliver "useful learning" – a phrase that to Macaulay was synonymous with Western culture.

Availability of adequate water for irrigation has changed the cropping pattern of various regions. Many farmers because of the increased availability of water have switched over to the cultivation of water intensive commercial crops such as  jute, cotton and tea, rather than food grains such as bajra, wheat and ragi.

The changed cropping pattern has affected the ecological balance of some of the regions as increased irrigation has led to salinity of soil. This has reduced the fertility of the soil.

Irrigation has changed the cropping pattern of many regions, due to the construction of dams in the following ways : (i) The farmers have shifted water-intensive and commercial crops. (ii) It has changed the ecology by salinisation of the soil.

A bill is the draft of a legislative proposal, which, when passed by both houses of Parliament and assented to by the President, becomes an act of Parliament. ... The former are called government bills and the latter, private member's bill. Bills may also be classified as public bills and private bills.

First of all, we need to identify the type of graph either it is a Population, Topographic, Weather, Political & World Maps because each type of map is studied differently.

Once the type of map is identified. Its legends are read thoroughly so that you know what symbol represents what.

You must be familiar with all the terms or features used in a map because the actual idea of map reading is to interpret the knowledge as original features on earth.

Agriculture is an activity of growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of livestock. It is a primary activity since it directly involves in natural resources. In India, a huge number of people derive the activity from their ancestors. A large portion of India is full of highly fertile land. Moreover, India is a densely populated country and hence needs food grain production on a large scale. The monsoon climate of India is highly favourable for farming. Hence, agriculture is the main economic activity in India.

• Lifting India out of poverty and, building a modern technical and industrial base were among the major objections of the new nation.
• In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development.
• In 1956, the second Five year plan was formulated which focused strongly on the development of heavy industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams.

Answer Different crops are grown in different regions because growing the crops depends on factors such as favourable topography of soil, demand of produce, type of climate, amount of rainfall, technology and labour.

S. No.	Subsistence farming	Intensive farming
1.	This type farming is done to fulfil demands of the family members. Production is limited. Old tools are used. It is found in poor countries.	This type of farming is done on a small farm using simple tools and more labour. It is found in thickly populated areas of India and China.
2.	It depends upon monsoon and the fertility of the soil.	In this type of farming irrigation is used.
3.	Since it is a 'slash and bum' and bum agriculture the farm land is left for a period of time to again its fertility.	This type of farming is done continually year after year to feed the growing polulation.

Difference between Subsistence farming and intensive fanning  

S. No.	Subsistence farming	Intensive farming
1.	This type farming is done to fulfil demands of the family members. Production is limited. Old tools are used. It is found in poor countries.	This type of farming is done on a small farm using simple tools and more labour. It is found in thickly populated areas of India and China.
2.	It depends upon monsoon and the fertility of the soil.	In this type of farming irrigation is used.
3.	Since it is a 'slash and bum' and bum agriculture the farm land is left for a period of time to again its fertility.	This type of farming is done continually year after year to feed the growing polulation.