The Spinning Jenny was devised by James Hargreaves in the year 1764. This machine speeded up the spinning process and reduced the labour demand in cotton industry. By turning one single wheel, a worker could set in motion a number of spindles and spin several threads at the same time.

Public facilities are services provided by the government to its citizens. Some of the important public facilities include infrastructure, sanitation, public transport, health care, water, etc. The government's main objective is to provide these public facilities to citizens and businesses to manage social and economic activities more smoothly. Let's look at some of the public facilities in India.  

• Infrastructure
• sanitation
• Public transport

There are many facilities which need to be provided to everyone. These are known as public facilities. Examples: healthcare, sanitation, electricity, public transport, schools, colleges, drinking water, etc. Long-distance buses are operated by private companies; similarly, there are many Private Hospitals that provide health care for the citizens. As we know that private companies operate for profit in the market. In such cases, private companies provide public facilities but at a price that only some people can afford. Hence, it is the responsibility of the government to provide public facilities.

The accused is tried in an open court by the public prosecutor. There are two lawyers involved, the defence lawyer who fights the trial for the accused, and the public prosecutor who fights the trial against the accused in an open court.

Mahatma Gandhi was the only person who thought of swaraj and led non cooperation movement , civil disobedient movement , salt march and many other steps to fight against British . max people became the follower  of M K Gandhi . and while all the movements he was the leader and hence M K Gandhi emerged as a mass leader.

• Courts are important because they help protect our constitutional rights to equal protection and due process under the law.
• Both criminal and civil courts provide the opportunity for the parties to have their cases heard by neutral judges and/or juries. This process ensures that all cases are decided in a fair and consistent manner.
• Courts provide a forum to resolve disputes and to test and enforce laws in a fair and rational manner.
• Courts are an impartial forum, and judges are free to apply the law without regard to the states wishes or the weight of public opinion but in line with human rights.

Construction of a huge dam creates large scale destruction of natural vegetation and wildlife in those areas which get submerged. This is not good for the ecosystem. Hence, environmental aspects must be carefully looked into before building huge dams. Quarrying can become a major environmental concern because it destroys the flora and fauna around it. It destroys the humus of soil, which is required for the growth of plants and crops. It produces dust, which causes air pollution and also produces noise pollution.

Some of the major functions of judiciary are as follows:

(1) It interprets the laws:

A number of cases are brought before the judges in which the question of the interpretation of the laws arises, because in such cases the law is not clear. Even such matters are brought before them in which the laws are silent. In these cases or matters the judges give their decisions. Later, these decisions are quoted in similar cases. In this way the courts expand the laws in an indirect manner.

(2) Protector of Civil Rights:

People are given many rights by the state through the laws of the Parliament. The courts protect these rights.

(3) Decides the cases:

Many cases relating to the disputes between the citizens, or between the government and the citizens, are brought before the courts. The courts give their decisions on such disputes.

(4) Custodian of fundamental rights:In modern times, many countries grant fundamental rights to the people in the Constitution. The Supreme Courts there act as the custodian of these rights. In the Constitution of our country, citizen violates these fundamental rights or if, because of this violation, a person loses his rights, an appeal can be filed in a High Court or the Supreme Court for the protection of these rights. It is the duty of the courts to protect the rights of the citizens. Our High Courts and Supreme Court have decided many cases in which the question of the violation of the fundamental rights was involved.

(5) Guardian of the Constitution:

Chief Justice Marshall of U.S.A. definitely decided in Marbury v. Madison (1803) that the courts had the inherent right to declare the acts of Congress invalid. Since then Marbury case forms the basis of this important authority exercised by the Supreme Court.

If a law passed by the Congress violates the Constitution, that law shall be declared as void because the Constitution is the highest law of the land and it is the duty of the courts to protect it. The principle which was devised by Chief Justice Marshall is known as Judicial Review. For the protection of the Constitution many laws have been declared illegal which violated any law or any clause of the Constitution.

(6) Decides the conflicts of jurisdiction between the Centre and State Governments in Federations:

In federal constitutions there is a division of powers between the Centre and the States. There is a possibility of disputes arising between the Centre and the State over the jurisdiction. Therefore, the Supreme Court is given the right to decide these disputes.

Iron and steel industry is often referred to as the backbone of the modern industry because of the following reasons: Almost everything is either made from iron or steel has been made using tools and machinery made of these metals.

Khilafat movement was started by Ali brothers in August 1920 for the preservation of the office of Khalifa (Caliph), the religious head of the Muslims. Gandhiji combined the Khilafat Movement with the Non-Cooperation Movement as he saw in this an opportunity to unite Hindus & the Muslims.

In 1921, the Khilafat Committee appealed to all Muslims not to join the police & armed forces & not to pay taxes. this enraged the government. The Ali brothers were arrested on charges of sedition.

Gandhiji suspended the Non-Cooperation movement after the Chauri Chaura incident. He was arrested in 1922. A few months after his arrest, the Caliph or the Sultan of Turkey was deposed of his power due to a revolution led by Mustafa Kemal Pasha.

Later on, Turkey moved towards becoming a secular state & the Khilafat issue lost its importance.

Some of the steps taken to ensure independence of judiciary are as follows:

1. Separation of Judiciary from the Executive and Legislature:

Judiciary in India is neither a branch of the executive nor a hand-maid of the legislature. It has an independent identity under the Constitution. It enjoys full autonomy in its working.

2. Appointment of Judges by the President:

The method of appointment of judges has been very sound. The Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed by the President. While appointing other judges the Supreme Court, the President consults the Chief Justice of India. In case of the appointment of the Chief Justice, the practice of appointing the senior most judges to this high office is followed. In the case of subordinate courts, the Judges are recruited through competitive examinations.

3. High Qualifications:

The Constitution prescribes specific and high qualifications for the Judges. A person eligible for judgeship has to be an Indian citizen, must have experience as a Judge of a High Court for at least five years or as an advocate of High Court for at least ten years or be a distinguished jurist. Thus, only persons with high qualifications and experience are appointed as judges of the courts.

4. Long Tenure:

Judges of Supreme Court remain in office till they attain the age of 65 years. This age limit ensures a long tenure for the Judges.

5. Security of Service:

The Judges in India enjoy good security of service. No judge can be removed from the office except by a very difficult process of impeachment.

6. High Salary:

Every Judge of the Supreme Court gets a high salary. Besides this, each judge is entitled to free residential accommodation, medical allowance and several other perks. Salaries and allowances of judges cannot be reduced during their terms of office, except in the situation of a financial emergency in the country.

7. Prohibition of Practice after Retirement:

A Judge of the Supreme Court is prohibited to practice before any court or authority in India.

Special privileges were given for the poorest and most disadvantaged Indians. The dalits and the tribals had faced oppression since ages. They were given reservation in government jobs and educational institutions so that they could improve their socioeconomic status.

After the 1840s, paintings on social and political themes were began produced, called as kalighat paintings.
Many of kalighat pictures were printed in large number and sold in the market.

The first successful attempt was made in 1875 in setting up an iron and steel works at Barakar by Bengal Iron and Steel Company. This was taken over by Bengal Iron Company in 1889. But the iron and steel industry in India had a real beginning in the year 1907 when Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) was opened at Sakchi which later became Jamshedpur. After independnce, several iron and steel companies were established. Most of these are in public sector.
Presently, India is the fourth largest producer of steel in the world and the largest producer of sponge iron.

The sepoys refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges with some objections. They suspected that the cartridges were coated with the fat of cows and pigs. Both Hindus and Muslims felt insulted. It appeared to the Indian soldiers that the right aim of the English was to turn all the sepoys into Christians, and therefore they had introduced the new cartridges. Once they suspected this. they refused to use them (new cartridges).

he industries that were involved in producing handicrafts were cottage industry and other small scale industries. These would include weaving, pottery, basket making , spinning and other handicrafts . 

The Weimar Republic faced violent uprisings from various groups, not to mention devastating economic problems. Germany between 1918 and 1919 was in chaos. People were starving, the Kaiser had fled and people hated the government for signing the armistice in November 1918 - they called them the November criminals.

The different reasons people had for not sending girls to school were: (i) It would prevent them from doing their domestic duties. (ii)'They would have to travel through public places in order to reach school. (iii) People feared that school would take girls away from home.
 

Human resources is used to describe both the people who work for a company or organization and the department responsible for managing resources related to employees.

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836-86) was the founder of this socio-religious movement. He was a poor priest in a temple at Dakshineshwar near Calcutta.  Formally, the Mission was founded in May 1897 by Paramahamsa's disciple, Narendranath Dutta, who was later on known as Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902).

William Adam was a missionary from Scotland. He was asked by the company present a report on the vernacular schools of India. Thereon, he began his tour to Bihar and Bengal and made the following is the description of the Pathshalas:

1. there were over 1lakh pathshalas in the region of Bihar and Bengal.  

2. The size of the pathshalas was small and it had not more than twenty students.  

3. These Pathshalas were often set up under the Banyan tree, at Guru's house or in the corner of the vil-lage etc.  

4. These Pathshalas did not have printed books, fixed fees, no benches and chairs, no buildings, and no regular timetable.

5. These Pathshalas were flexible and the fee depended on the income of the parents.