Rashtrakutas in the Deccan were initially subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief overthrew his Chalukya overlord in the mid-eighth century. He performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha which literally means the golden womb. In this context, the ritual meant ‘rebirth’ i.e. rebirth of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya (even if he was not one by birth) after performing the ritual with the help of Brahamanas.

Press conference is a gathering of journalists from media. They are invited to hear about and ask various questions on a particular issue and are then expected to report about the same to the larger public.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was one of the most remarkable rulers of his age. He is known for some of his schemes and policies which failed disastrously over the period of time.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq transfered his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad. He did this primarily because of two reasons:

• Daulatabad was centrally located and was equidistance from Delhi and other important places.
• Since Delhi was within the reach of the Mongols, Daulatabad appeared to be at a safe distance from the possible Mongol attacks in the future.

Without the king, Delhi now became prone to the Mongol attacks. Later, Muhammad bin Tughlaq again shifted his capital back to Delhi.

The government has to take steps to improve the healthcare services especially aiming at the poor and underprivileged sections of the society. Improvement in the basic amenities and social conditions of the people will go a long way in improving their health conditions.

It is said that he always attacked India during the hot summer seasons and with the onset of monsoons, would go back to Ghazni, the reason being, he wanted to avoid the flooding rivers of Punjab, so that his forces won't get trapped there. In all his 17 invasions, a number of dynasties were conquered by him.

First invasion of Mahmud Ghazni in 1000 AD : Mahmud of Ghazni first invaded modern Afghanistan and Pakistan in 1000 AD. He defeated Hindu shahi kingdom ruler Jaya Pala, who killed himself later, and his son Ananda Pala became his successor.

1005 : Ghazni invaded Bhatia.

1006 : Ghazni invaded Multan. During this time, Ananda Pala attacked him.

1007 : Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukha Pala, ruler of Bhatinda.

1011 : Ghazni raided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills.

1013 : This was Mahmud's 8th expedition into Pakistan and Eastern Afghanistan, the shahi kingdom under Anand Pala, who was defeated by Ghazni in the Battle of Waihind, the Hind shahi capital near Peshawar.

1014 : Thanesar was conquered by Mahmud.

1015 : Kashmir was attacked by Mahmud.

1018 : He attacked Mathura, where a number of coalition of rulers were defeated, including a ruler called Chandra Pala.

1021 : Mahmud conquered Kanauj by defeating Kanauj King Chandella Ganda. In the same year he defeated and killed two more rulers, Shahi Trilochana Pala and his son Bhima Pala, thereby conquering Rahib and Lahore (modern Pakistan).

1023 : Gwalior was invaded and conquered by Ghazni.

Last invasion of Mahmud Ghazni, 1027 : In 1027, he attacked the Somnath temple. The brave Hindu Rajputs tried to defend the temple when the enemy tried to get inside it. The Hindus fought very bravely and initially the enemies could not damage the temple. However, after 3 days of fights, Mahmud Ghazni's troops were successful in plundering the Somnath temple, in which the sacred idol, Linga was destroyed. Ghazni looted all the treasures of the temple, which was at that time worth 20-million Dinars, more than eighty times of what he had collected in his first invasion. Around 5000 Hindus died during this last invasion.

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Achievement  1. Balban’s Theory of Kingship and Restoration of the Prestige of the Sultan.
Achievement  2. The Destruction of ‘The Forty’.
Achievement   3. The Army: A strong army was a necessity for a powerful monarchy. Balban realised its necessity to make his despotism effective, to safeguard his empire from the invasion of the Mongols and to suppress rebellions. He increased the number of officers and soldiers of his army, paid them good salaries and took personal interest in their training.
Achievement   4.
The Administration and the Spy-System: The administration of Balban was half-military and half-civil. All his officers were supposed to perform both administrative and military duties. Balban himself kept control over the entire administration. There was no post of naib during his reign and the position of the vazir too had become quite insignificant.

Achievement  5. The Suppression of Revolts: Balban took immediate measures to provide security to the city of Delhi. The forests around Delhi were cleared, four forts were built on the four corners of Delhi and ferocious Afghan troops were placed in them. The robbers and freebooters around Delhi were constantly attacked and killed brutally.

The term pan-regional empire means an empire expending diverse region. Not all the empire are equality stable or successful

Origins of the Pala Dynasty rose from the Bengal Region during the end of the classical period, in the Sub-Continent. Being staunch Buddhist followers, they followed the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
Gopala was the first of their rulers and Govindapala was the last. Ramachitra was written during the first ruler’s reign. Dharmapala was the main reason their rule was more recognized since he expanded the boundaries of
the empire and they became a more dominant force.
Devapala was responsible for building many temples and monasteries. Vikramashila and Nalanda Universities were patronized by him. In his reign, what is now known as Assam and Orissa, were conquered.
They were known for their interest in the creative and were instigators of classical Indian philosophies as well as literature, art and construction.

A volcano is an opening in the surface of the Earth from which hot magma flows out. The following are the structural features of a volcano:

Vent: It is an opening from which hot magma flow out to the surface of the Earth. It is a circular pipe like structure.

Crater: It is a bowl shaped like opening or a mouth of a volcano.

Magma chamber: It is here that the hot magma is stored beneath a volcano.

Magma: It is the hot molten fluid, which comes out to the surface during a volcanic eruption.

Lava: When molten magma reaches the surface of the Earth, it is known as lava.

Elections are important in a democratic country because it is through elections that people elect their own representatives. Elections enable voters to select leaders and to hold them accountable for their performance in office. If the elected leaders do not perform according to the expectations of the people, the latter may replace them in the next elections by not voting for them.

A modern democracy has certain important features which are enshrined in its constitution.

1. Rule by the People: A democracy is a political system where the people choose the government through regular, free and fair elections. During elections people choose their representatives from competing parties. The people thus decide who will represent them in parliament. Thus, in a democracy, the people are the highest form of political authority. The leaders of government hold power only temporarily, i.e., as long as they enjoy the trust of the people.
2. Justice and Equality: Justice and equality are the two pillars of democracy. Justice is to give each one what is due to him or her as a person. Equality is defined by our constitution as “every citizen is equal before the law… there shall be no discrimination by virtue of caste, ***, religion, wealth, etc.” To enjoy the equality there should be justice.
3. Guarantee of basic human right to every citizen: In a democracy, every citizen has certain basic rights or fundamental rights that are guaranteed by the constitution of the country. These rights cannot be taken by the state. They include- The right to freedom of speech and action, The right to equality, The right to freedom of religion, The right to information, The right to travel and settle anywhere in the country, The right to associate, The right to assemble freely.
4. The rule of law: In a democracy, there are several laws to limit the power of the government, to maintain order and protect the rights of citizens. All citizens are equal in the eyes of law. No one is above the law, not even a king or an elected president. No one may be discriminated against on the basis of their race, religion, ethnic group or gender. No one may be arrested or imprisoned, without adequate reason. Torture or ill-treatment of prisoners is forbidden. This is known as rule of law.
5. Separation of powers: To ensure smooth and impartial governance, most democracies provide for the separation of the three bodies of government- the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.
6. Governance for the public good: In a democracy the government is elected to work for the good of the public.
7. Participation of citizens in politics and civic life: The citizen of a democracy participate actively in its functioning. They are well informed about the issues facing the country and how they want the issues addressed. The success of a democracy depends on citizen’s peaceful participation.

Article 15 of the Indian Constitution states prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, *** or place of birth.
1. The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, ***, place of birth or any of them.
2. No citizen shall, on the grounds of religion, race, caste, ***, place of birth or any of them, be subject to any disability, liability, restriction or condition with regard to

• Access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment; or
• The use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public recreation maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of the general public.