Khilafat movement was a political campaign launched mainly by Muslims in South Asia to influence the British government and to protect the Ottoman Empire after World War I

• In 1920 the movement gained force after the Treaty of Sèvres, which solidified the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire.
• Indian Muslims were keen that the Khalifa be allowed to retain control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire.
• The leaders of the Khilafat agitation, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, now wished to initiate a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement.
• Gandhiji supported the movement and asked the Congress to campaign against the Jallianwala massacre and demand for Swaraj.

Inscriptions are the writings on stone, metal or some materials as an important historical source. These are valuable historical evidence of the existence and activities of early kings and empires. They also provide detailed religious practises.

The Hindu religious texts like the 'Dharamshastras' laid down that only the khatriyas could become the kings. But after the Mauryans, the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western and central India (c. second century BCE-second century CE) and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin who established kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent became kings and cheifs. Their background were obscure. Hence, in post Mauryan state, the idea of kingship got assosiated with divine rights of the king.
The Kushana rulers built and erected huge statutes of themselves at several places. Some historians feel this indicates that the Kushanas considered themselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers also adopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”. The Gupta rulers too took on grand titles like 'Samratdhiraj' to assert their powers. However, they were dependent on the 'samantas' for military support. But powerful samantas could become kings: conversely, weak rulers might find themselves being reduced to positions of subordination.
Court poets wrote eulogies which praised the king for his bravery and rule. One such 'prashasti' was written by court poet Harisena in praise of the Gupta king 'Samudragupta'.

(i) The creation of Pakistan could not solve minority problem as the number of Muslims in the remaining part of British India and the number of non-Muslims in Pakistan would still be very large.
(ii) League had demanded the inclusion of the predominantly non-Muslim parts of Punjab, Bengal and Assam.
(iii) The creation of a small sovereign State of Pakistan composedto the Muslim majority areas alone would still not solve the communal problem.
(iv) The division of the Punjab would also result to the large scale displacement of the Sikh community mainly based in the Punjab.
(v) Even from economic, administrative and military perspective, the existence of West and East Pakistan would be difficult as travel and communication between the two would heavily depend on the whims and fancies of the Indian government.

 The August Offer was made by Lord Linlithgow in 1940 to end the political deadlock which had occurred during the Second World War. The Congress on 27th July, 1940 made an offer of co-operation in the War, provided its demand for independence was conceded and a provisional national Government responsible to the Central Assembly was formed at the Centre. In response to this, the Government made an offer known as August Offer.

During the Second World War, the Cripps Mission had come to India in March 1942 to have talks with Indian leaders with a view to grant Dominion Status to India after the end of the War.

The Cripps Mission was sent to India by the British Government under the leadership of Sir Stafford Cripps in 1942. It made the following recommendations:

(i) It recommended to make India a Dominion State after the end of the Second World War.

(ii) To frame a new constitution for India, a Constituent Assembly would be constituted. It will have all elected members.

(iii) The provinces which did not agree to the constitution would retain their present position.

(iv) In the new constitution, there would also be a provision to enable the princely states to participate. However these states would not be bound by the new constitution.

(v) After the formation of a constitution, there would be a treaty between Britain and India to chalk-out a frame-work for the transfer of political power.

(vi) The British also ensured protection of the minorities in the new system.

The distinctive features of urban centres in Harappan civilization are.

1. The division of town into Citadel and lower town where, citadel was on the higher ground with its huge structure probably used for public purposes and the lower town wheere we find the residential area with its distinct architecture.

2. Drainage system- It was one of the most important feature of the urban centres, it was neatly laid with idea to keep it clean and was connected with every drain of the residential area.

3. streets- Every part of the town was connected with roads and street. It was laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles. It appears that drain and streets were laid out first and then houses were built along them.