Evidences to explain the collapse of the Harappa civilization
(i) After 1900 BCE there were disappearance of the distinctive
(ii) Writing, long distance trade and craft specialization also disappeared.
(iii) House construction techniques deteriorated.
(iv) Large public structure were no longer produced.
(v) Artefacts and settlements indicated a rural life called as Late Harappan and Successive Culture.
(vi) Disappearance of the seals, the script, distinctive beads and pottery.
(vii) There was the shift from a standardized weight system to the use of the local weights.
(viii) There were decline and abandonment of cities.
(ix) Abandonment of Cholistan.
(x) Shift/ expansion of population into new settlements into Gujarat, Haryana , western UP.
 

1. A Planned Urban Centre: Harappa was a planned urban centre. It was divided into two sections. One section of this city was small. It was built on a higher place. The second section was large but it was at a lower place. The archaeologists has named the first section as Citadel and the second section as the Lower Town. The citadel owed its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It had walls on all its sides. These walls separated it from the Lower Town.

2. The Citadel: The citadel had many buildings which were used for special public purposes. The most important were the following two structures: (i) The Warehouse, (ii) The Great Bath. With its special structure many scholars believe that Great bath to be for some ritual baths.

3. The Lower Town: The Lower Town was also a walled town. Most of the buildings were built on platforms. These platforms served as foundations. It has been estimated that if one worker moved about a cubic metre of earth daily, it would have needed four million person days. In other words, we can say that it required mobilisation of labour on a very large scale.

All the buildings in the city were built on the platforms. Thus the settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the building plan. This planning is also evident from the bricks which were both baked and sun-dried. These bricks were of standardised ratio. Their length and width was four times and twice the height respectively. Such bricks were used in all the settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.

4. Well Planned Drainage System: The drainage system of the Harappan cities were also carefully planned. All the roads and streets were laid out on a grid pattern. They intersected at right angles. It seems that streets having drains were laid out first. Thereafter houses were built along them. Every house had at least one wall along a street so that the domestic waste water could flow into the drain of the street.

5. Residence of Domestic Architecture: The Lower Town of Mohenjodaro had an expansion of residentail buildings. All these buildings had a courtyard. The rooms were on all the sides of the courtyard. In the hot and dry weather, this courtyard was perhaps the centre of activities like cooking and weaving. While constructing residential buildings, the people had full concern for their privacy. These buildings did not have any windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides this, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior of the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom. It was floored with bricks. Its gutter was connected to the street drain through the wall. Some houses also had stair-case to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells and these wells were in a room which was easily approachable. Any body could reach it even from outside. 

•  Kings in early  states  were not  invariably Kshatriyas.

• Several important ruling  lineages  had different origins.

• For example, according  to later  Buddhist  texts, social background of the Mauryas  was Kshatriya, but Brahmanical texts  described  them  as being  of "low" origin.  They established a mighty empire.

• Shakas were regarded as mlechchhas (barbarians or outsiders) by the Brahmanas. However, Rudradaman, the  best-known Shaka ruler, was a powerful ruler.

• Powerful  mlechchhas who were familiar with Sanskritic traditions could become  rulers.

• Ruler of the Satavahana  dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri­ Satakani  claimed  to be both  a Brahmana  and a Kshatriya.

1. The early bhakti tradition evolved and was characterised by remarkable diversity. It accommodated and acknowledged women and the “lower castes”, who were considered ineligible within orthodox Brahmanical framework, while Brahmanas remained important intermediaries between gods and devotees in several forms of bhakti.
2. Historians of religion often classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories: saguna (with attributes) and nirguna (without attributes).
3. Alvars: Some of the earliest bhakti movements (sixth century) were led by the Alvars (literally, those who are “immersed” in devotion to Vishnu) and Nayanars (literally, leaders who were devotees of Shiva). They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
4. The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or attempted to reform the system.
5. Their compositions were as important as the Vedas. One of the major anthologies of compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas.

The Ain-i-Akbari  or the "Administration of Akbar", is a 16th-century detailed document recording the administration of the Mughal Empire under Emperor Akbar, written by his court historian, Abu'l Fazl in the Persian language.

(a) Mahatma Gandhi felt that Hindustani was a language that the common people could easily understand

(b) Hindustani which was a blend of Hindi and Urdu was popular among a large section of the people. Moveover it was a composite language enriched by the interaction of diverse cultures.

(c) Over the years words and terms from many different sources had been incorporated into this language making it easily understood by people from various regions.

(d) According to Mahatma Gandhi Hindustani would be the ideal language of communication between dieverse communities. It would help to unify Hindus and Muslims and the people from the north and south.

Religious beliefs of Indus valley people are always hard to determine because of the minimum number of archaeological evidence.

For example, earlier discoveries emphasized that Indus valley civilization worshiped a mother goddess symbolizing fertility. But later discoveries that displayed swastika. Many discoveries from the Indus valley is emphasizing that the Indus people must have worshiped many gods and they have many religions in them.

The contradiction between discoveries made the religious beliefs of Indus valley people so hard to determine and reconstruct the religious practices of Harappa.

Following are the factors that led to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in India:

1. Reaction against Ritualism - Religious ceremonies and rituals had become very expensive and were performed according to the whims and fancies of the priestly class. Hence, a need was felt for a simple and inexpensive faith.
2. Corruption in Religion - Corruption had crept into religion and the priests often extracted money out of common citizens through different rituals. This was resented by another powerful community, i.e., the Kshatriyas.
3. Rigid Caste System - The caste divisions had become extremely rigid and there was absolutely no social mobility left in the society. There were restrictions on the basis of caste, on food, drinks and marriage.
4. Difficult language - The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and the Brahmans gave religious discourse in only that language. It was not understood or spoken by the common people and hence a need was felt for a religion which would be accessible for people at large.
5. Political situation - In the sixth century BC, Magadha was ruled by Bimbisara and later by Ajatashatru. Both had definitive opinions about religion and philosophy. Later on, both patronised Jainism and Buddhism.
6. Agricultural economy - Killing animals did not bore well for the farmers in the Gangetic valley as the increasing use of iron had made animal drawn ploughing popular. As a result, they were in a position to embrace a religion that supported non violence and was against the custom of animal sacrifice.

Buddhist literature helps understanding the sculpture at Sanchi in the following ways :

1. A scene at the northern gateway at its first sight seems to depict a rural scene, with thatched huts and trees. However, the historians after studying the sculpture carefully, identify it as a scene from the Vessantara Jataka. It is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with his wife and children.
2. The art historians acquire familiarity with biographies of the Buddha in order to understand Buddhist sculpture. According to Buddha’s biographies, Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating under a tree. Many early sculptures showed Buddha’s presence through symbols such as empty seat, stupa and the wheel. Such symbols can be understood only with the traditions of those who produced these works of art.
3. It may be mentioned that one of the earliest modem art historians, James Ferguson, considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent worship because he was not familiar with Buddhist literature – most of which had not yet been translated. He, therefore, arrived at his conclusion by studying only the images on their own.

There were certain distinction when it came to ideas of upanishadic thinkers form those of the fatalists and the materialists. There difference lies not in the question but rather in the solutions. Because the questions are same, meaning of life, death, rebirth etc.

However the interesting aspect is the answers, upanishadic thinkers believed in life after death, and the theory of karma but they also believed that karma could be rid or gained. Now when we look at the Fatalist thinkers from the Ajivikas we find that their believes are very different, they believed that everything is predetermined and it is foolish to try to get rid of karma or gaining karma.

On the other hand Lokayatas had very distinct answers to the above questions, they are known as materialist as they believed that human were made of four elements and when they die these elements goes back to where it came from. Thus they believed that there is no world as next believed by other schools.

System of Land Grants:

i. Grants made to religious institutions

iii. Grants called agrahara grants were made to Brahmanas

iii. Samantas were also given land. Prabhavati Gupta – example of agrahara grant made by a woman is an exception

iv. Land grants were a strategy to extend agriculture and Brahmanical practices in new regions

The Mahājanapadas were sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed in Northern ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE during the second urbanisation period.

Mahajanapadas literally "great kingdoms" refers to 16 monarchies and 'republics' that stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh in the sixth century B.C.E., prior to and during the rise of Buddhism in India. They represent a transition from a semi-nomadic tribal society to an agrarian-based society with a vast network of trade and a highly-organized political structure. Many of these “kingdoms” functioned as republics governed by a general assembly and a council of elders led by an elected “king consul.” The Mahajanapadas are the historical context of the Sanskrit epics, such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as well as Puranic literature (the itihasa). They were also the political and social context in which Buddhism and Jainism emerged and developed.

Most of the historical details about the Mahajanapadas are culled from Sanskrit literature. Buddhist and Jaina texts refer to the Mahajanapadas only incidentally. In a struggle for supremacy during the fifth century B.C.E., the growing state of Magadha emerged as the most predominant power in ancient India, annexing several of the Janapadas. They were all eventually absorbed into the the Maurya Empire after 321 B.C.E.

Mughal dynasty, Mughal also spelled Mogul, Persian Mughal, Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. After that time it continued to exist as a considerably reduced and increasingly powerless entity until the mid-19th century. The Mughals began to rule parts of India from 1526, and by 1700 ruled most of the sub-continent. After that they declined rapidly, but nominally ruled territories until the 1850s. The Mughals were a branch of the Timurid dynasty of Turco-Mongol origin from Central Asia.

• The basic demerit of this system was that the efficiency depended upon the nature of the Zamindars. If they were good, the interests of the farmers and the land were looked after very well. They would make improvements in the land which would be beneficial to everyone concerned. But if the landlords were bad, they were negligent of the plight of the farmers and the conditions of the land.
• This created a class of hereditary landlords forming the upper aristocracy in society who generally led luxurious and extravagant lifestyles.
• The Zamindars were generally favourable to the British administration and supported the British even during the freedom struggle. There were exceptions.
• The land assessment was not done properly and land revenue was fixed arbitrarily. This meant that both productive and unproductive land was expected to furnish revenue at the same rates. This created a burden on the farmers of unproductive land. Also, in the case of productive land, it was a loss of revenue to the government.
• The revenue rates were so high that many Zamindars became defaulters. In time, this system proved to have disastrous effects. In 1811, the British government warned against the imposition of permanent settlement without a proper land survey.

(i) Francis Buchanan came to India as a physician. He served the people of India in institution named the Bengal Medical Service nearly for 21 years.

(ii) Buchanan also served as a renowned surgeon to the Governor General of India named Lord Wellesley.

(iii) He was great lover of animals and birds. During his stay in Calcutta (present day Kalkota), he organise a joo. Due to his efforts that joo develop and later on became the Calcutta Alipur Joo.

(iv) Francis Buchanan also remained incharge of the Botanical Gardens for a short period. It shows that he had great love for plants and trees. On the request of the Government of Bengal he undertook detailed surveys of areas under the jurisdiction of the British East India Company.

(v) Unfortunately in 1815 Francis Buchanan fell ill and returned to his own country. Upon his mother’s death, he inherited for property and assumed her family name Hamilton. Therefore he generally called Francis Buchanan-Hamilton.

Relation between Sufi Saints and State :

(i)    Major characteristic of the Chishti community was its simple and disciplined life. They emphasised to remain away from the mundane authority. But it did not mean to keep aloof from the political power. The Chishtis accepted all the donations made by the royal rulers. However they themselves never demanded such gifts or donations. The Sultans gave khanqahs land in donation. Many trusts were set up regarding grants, gifts and donations.

(ii)    The Chishtis accepted donation both in cash and kind. But they never accumulated donations. They spent them on immediate requirements like food, clothes, living quarters and ritual necessities. It enhanced the moral authority of the Shaikhs who attracted people from all walks of life. They became very popular as they possessed piety, scholarship, miraculous powers and royal patronage. That is why, all the rulers tried to secure their support.

(iii)    The Sultans knew that most of their subjects did not follow Islam. So when the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, they rejected the wish of the ulama to impose Shariat as state law. They expected opposition from their subjects as majority of them were non-Muslims. They depended on the sufis who derived their authority directly from God. They did not depend on jurists to interpret the Shariat.

(iv) There are many examples of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. Both wanted to assert their authority. Both emphasised the prostration and kissing of the feet. Because of the moral authority of the Chishtis, the kings often wanted their tombs to be in the vicinity of Rufi shrines. On the other hand, the sufi Shaikhs were also addressed with high-sounding titles. For example, the disciples of Nizamuddin Auliya.

1. A Planned Urban Centre: Harappa was a planned urban centre. It was divided into two sections. One section of this city was small. It was built on a higher place. The second section was large but it was at a lower place. The archaeologists has named the first section as Citadel and the second section as the Lower Town. The citadel owed its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It had walls on all its sides. These walls separated it from the Lower Town.

2. The Citadel: The citadel had many buildings which were used for special public purposes. The most important were the following two structures: (i) The Warehouse, (ii) The Great Bath. With its special structure many scholars believe that Great bath to be for some ritual baths.

3. The Lower Town: The Lower Town was also a walled town. Most of the buildings were built on platforms. These platforms served as foundations. It has been estimated that if one worker moved about a cubic metre of earth daily, it would have needed four million person days. In other words, we can say that it required mobilisation of labour on a very large scale.

All the buildings in the city were built on the platforms. Thus the settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the building plan. This planning is also evident from the bricks which were both baked and sun-dried. These bricks were of standardised ratio. Their length and width was four times and twice the height respectively. Such bricks were used in all the settlements of the Harappan Civilisation.

4. Well Planned Drainage System: The drainage system of the Harappan cities were also carefully planned. All the roads and streets were laid out on a grid pattern. They intersected at right angles. It seems that streets having drains were laid out first. Thereafter houses were built along them. Every house had at least one wall along a street so that the domestic waste water could flow into the drain of the street.

5. Residence of Domestic Architecture: The Lower Town of Mohenjodaro had an expansion of residentail buildings. All these buildings had a courtyard. The rooms were on all the sides of the courtyard. In the hot and dry weather, this courtyard was perhaps the centre of activities like cooking and weaving. While constructing residential buildings, the people had full concern for their privacy. These buildings did not have any windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides this, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior of the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom. It was floored with bricks. Its gutter was connected to the street drain through the wall. Some houses also had stair-case to reach a second storey or the roof. Many houses had wells and these wells were in a room which was easily approachable. Any body could reach it even from outside. 

In 1565, Rama Raya, the Chief Minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into the battle at Rakashasi Tangadi where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The armies of the sultans were responsible for the destruction of the city of Vijayanagara.

It was only after the death of Krishnadeva Raya, the relation between Sultans and Rayas became bitter. The adventurous policy of Rama Raya who tried to play off one Sultan against another, made the Sultans angry and they combinedly defeated him. In this way, Vijayanagara empire was gradually destructed.

The stupa at Amaravati was one of the largest and the most significant among the Buddhist stupas. The stupa at Sanchi survived while Amaravati did not. Ther reasons are:

• It is said that the stupa at Amaravati was discovered sometime earlier than the one at Sanchi.
• Perhaps, the scholars were not aware of the significance of preserving the archaeological remains at the site where they were originally found.
• The Sanchi stupa Was discovered in the year 1818. At that time, three of its four gateways were still standing, the fourth was lying on the spot and the mound was in good condition.

The 6th century BC is considered most important in the history of India on account of the following reasons:

(i) The Vedic tradition lost its grip in the 6th century BC. There was an importance of meditation because of the increasing significance of Upanishads. The people were curious to find new ways of seeking nirvana or salvation or self-realisation. Consequently many new philosophical ideas emerged in the society.

(ii) Because of the emergence of new philosophical ideas, many new religious communities took birth. They were about 62 in number. Out of these, Jainism and Buddhism influenced the people the most. As a result, there was a change in the nature of the Indian society.

(iii) Jainism and Buddhism emphasised meditation and self-control. Their views were synonym to the views expressed in the Upanishads. So the philosophy of the Upanishads had become quite popular.

Lingayats disapproved practices of the Dharmashashtra were:

(ii)They worship Shiva in his manifestation as a linga . They do not practice funerary rites such as cremation , prescribed in the Dharmashashtra. Instead , they ceremonially bury their dead.

(ii)They encouraged practices such as post puberty marriage and the remarriage of windows disapproved in the Dharmashashtras.