Sulphuric acid is an oxidizing agent, a strong mineral acid, and a dehydrating agent. Sulfuric Acid has the chemical formula H2SO4. It is manufactured using contact process. In this process, platinum was first used as a catalyst. Later vanadium oxide replaced platinum due to cost constraints.

 Contact process for manufacturing of sulphuric acid:

Steps involved in the manufacturing of sulphuric acid are as stated below:

1.Preparation of sulfur dioxide. 2.Conversion of sulphur dioxide into sulfur trioxide.

3.Conversion of sulfur trioxide formed into concentrated H2SO4.

Sulphuric acid

Contact Process

Step 1: Preparation of sulphur dioxide: SO2 is prepared by burning sulphur in the presence of excess air so that the product combines with oxygen which is helpful for the next stage. S(s) + O2 (g) → SO2(g)

Step 2: Preparation of sulphur trioxide: Sulphur trioxide is formed when sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen in a ratio of 1:1 at a temperature of 400°C – 450°C and a pressure of 1-2 atm in the presence of N2O5 as a catalyst. This reaction is reversible in nature. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)

Step 3: Preparation of concentrated sulphuric acid: The sulphur trioxide formed is first made to react with concentrated sulphuric acid. Sulphur trioxide cannot be dissolved in water directly as it leads to the formation of fog. The product obtained after this reaction is known as oleum.

The oleum obtained is then dissolved in water to obtain concentrated sulphuric acid. H2SO4 + SO3(g) → H2S2O7(l) H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4

Coagulation is a gelling or clumping of particles, typically in a colloid. The term typically applies to the thickening of a liquid or sol, usually when protein molecules crosslink.

Examples: Milk proteins coagulate to thicken the mixture that forms yogurt.

Coagulation is the process by which blood forms clots. Coagulation may also refer to water treatment, in colloid chemistry, a process in which dispersed colloidal particles agglomerate.

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

1. Air pollution :Air is the most polluted environmental resource. It is the introduction of harmful substances in the air that results in detrimental impacts to the environmental and humanity.. It is caused by emissions from manufacturing industries and power plants, vehicular emissions, smoking, natural events such as volcanic eruptions and wildfire, and burning of waste materials such as wood, rubber and plastics. The common air pollutants include hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), dust particles, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, particulate matter, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and nitrogen oxides.
2. Water pollution: Water pollution is the act of contaminating water bodies. It occurs when foreign harmful materials like chemicals, waste matter, or contaminated substances are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies.The discharge of industrial waste in water bodies are causes of water pollution.
3. Agricultural pollution: practices such as the use of pesticides and other agrochemicals that get washed into water systems or infiltrate into groundwater Discharge and dumping of waste materials and home made products such as plastics and detergents into water bodies Oil spills Natural disasters such as floods and hurricanes that lead to intermixing of water with dangerous substances on the land Sediments from soil erosion
4. Land Pollution: Land pollution is the destruction or decline in quality of the earth’s land surfaces in term of use, landscape and ability to support life forms.Land pollution takes place when waste and garbage is not disposed off in the right manner and as such, introduces toxins and chemicals on land. It also occurs when people dump chemical products to soils in the form of herbicides, fertilizers, pesticides, or any other form of the consumer by-products.  Acid rain, construction sites, solid waste, mineral exploitation, agricultural chemicals, and deforestations are the primary causes of land pollution.
5. Soil Pollution :Soil pollution takes place when chemical pollutants contaminate the soil or degraded by acts such as mining, clearance of vegetation cover, or topsoil erosion. Usually, it happens when human activities directly or indirectly introduce destructive chemicals, substances, or objects into the soil in a way that causes damage to the immediate earthly environment. As a consequence, soil losses its value of natural minerals and nutrients compositions. Soil degradation also contributes to soil pollution, and it occurs as a result of over-grazing, over-farming, or mining activities. The notable causes of soil pollution include agricultural farming activities, waste dumping on land, industrial activities, mining, and acid rain. Lose of wildlife habitat, soil erosion, reduced crop yields, contamination of food, and desertification are the precise consequences of soil pollution.
6. Noise Pollution: Noise pollution is mostly an undesirable sound or sound which generates horrible discomfort on the ears. It is measured in decibels (dB) and sound levels beyond 100 dB can cause permanent hearing loss. In the contemporary society, noise has become a permanent aspect owing to the daily activities such as transportation including airports, traffic and railroads, industrial manufacturing, construction works, and concerts.
7. Thermal Pollution :Thermal pollution occurs when water bodies are degraded in terms of altering their temperatures. It commonly happens when people or industries undertake activities that suddenly decrease or increase the temperature of a natural water body which may include lakes, rivers, oceans or ponds.
8. Light Pollution: Light pollution occurs due to lengthened and excessive use of artificial lights, such that it results in the brightening of the skies. As a consequence, it upsets the activities and natural cycles of wildlife and also affects the welfare of humans. Whenever artificial lights are used where they are not intended, it causes a nuisance.Light pollution is also referred to as luminous pollution or photo pollution. The types of light pollution include glare, light trespass, and sky glow. City lighting, advertising and billboards, and nighttime entertainments are some of the main contributors of light pollution.
9. Radioactive Pollution: It is very uncommon for radioactive pollution to occur, but when it happens the outcomes are catastrophic to the environment and to human health. Due to its intensity, it can cause massive human death, cancers, serious lung disease, organ damage, birth defects, and grave destruction to plant life and animals. It can also destroy soil, and cause water and air pollution. The sources of radioactive pollution include uranium mining operations, nuclear power plant accidents, and inappropriate nuclear waste disposal.

Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a model used in chemistry to predict the geometry of individual molecules from the number of electron pairs surrounding their central atoms. It is also named the Gillespie-Nyholm theory after its two main developers.

There is no direct relationship between the formula of a compound and the shape of its molecules. The shapes of these molecules can be predicted from their Lewis structures, however, with a model developed , known as the valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory.

Example:There are only two places in the valence shell of the central atom in BeF₂ where electrons can be found. Repulsion between these pairs of electrons can be minimized by arranging them so that they point in opposite directions. Thus, the VSEPR theory predicts that BeF₂ should be a linear molecule, with a 180^o angle between the two Be-F bonds.

The VSEPR theory assumes that each atom in a molecule will achieve a geometry that minimizes the repulsion between electrons in the valence shell of that atom.

Gelatin is a translucent, colourless, brittle , flavourless foodstuff, derived from collagen obtained from various animal by-products.Gelatin is an irreversibly hydrolyzed form of collagen and added to ice cream. to avoid crystal formation