Menstrual cycle: During the reproductive period of female primates, the ovaries produce ova at regular intervals of about 28/29 days and changes take place in the uterus in preparation for a possible pregnancy. This series of cyclic changes known as menstrual cycle. The most peculiar feature of this cycle is the monthly vaginal bleeding called menses.
 

Hormonal control:
Anterior pituitary
FSH
LH
Ovary
Estrogen
Progesterone

Binary Ti plasmid vector systems consist of two plasmids in Agrobacterium, where one plasmid contains the DNA that can be transferred to plant cells and the other contains the virulence (vir) genes which are necessary for the DNA transfer but are not themselves stably transferred.

Lamarckism, a theory of evolution based on the principle that physical changes in organisms during their lifetime—such as greater development of an organ or a part through increased use—could be transmitted to their offspring.

Outbreeding devices are the mechanisms/processes which the plants adapt to prevent self-pollination.
Outbreeding devices prevent the occurrence of self-fertilization in plants. The outbreeding devices are as follows:

1. Dioecism: Plant has either the male flowers or the female flowers so that self fertilization never occurs.

2. Dichogamy: It is the process of differential maturation of anther and stigma. When stigma becomes receptive before the anther dehiscence, it is called protogyny. When anther dehisces earlier than stigma becomes receptive, it is called protoandry.

3. Herkogamy: It occurs when stigma and anthers are prevented to come in contact separating the space. Either the style gets longer so that pollen cannot reach the stigma or the style gets shorter so that anther dehisce away from the stigma.

water pollinated flowers have the following adaptations

1. these flowers can float on water surface
2. the pollen grains are small and have more volume than its mass
3. the stegma is broad to easily capture the flowing p.grains
4. pollen grain are resistive to water so that water can not demage
5. pollen grain is sticky

Pollination is when pollen grains from an anther, the male portion of a flower, are transferred to a female part in the flower, known as the stigma. In order for pollination to be successful, the pollen grains transferred must be from a flower of the same species.
After the pollen grains land on the stigma, they create a pollen tube through the length of the style or stalk connecting the stigma and ovary. Once the pollen tube is complete, the pollen grain will send sperm cells from the grain down to the ovary. When the sperm cells reach the ovary and the egg cells, fertilization will occur, which will result in the formation of the seed. The seed will then be released from the parent plant and will be able to grow into a plant and continue the reproductive cycle using the method of pollination.

Types of Pollination

• Although all flowering plants rely on pollination for reproduction, there is a variation in how plants pollinate. There are two types of pollination, called self-pollination and cross-pollination.
• Self-pollination is the more basic type of pollination because it only involves one flower. This type of pollination occurs when pollen grains from the anther fall directly onto the stigma of the same flower. Although this type of pollination is simple and quick, it does result in a reduction in genetic diversity because the sperm and egg cells of the same flower share genetic information.
• Cross-pollination is a more complex type of pollination that involves the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of a different flower. This type of pollination results in an increase in genetic diversity because the different flowers are sharing and mixing their genetic information to create unique offspring.

Microsporogenesis: Sporogenous cells fill the whole interior of a microsporangium. They divide with the growth of another and increase their number. Ultimately they are transformed into microspore mother cells which are diploid (possess two genomes or double set of chromosomes). The microspore mother cells or microsporocytes develop an internal layer of callose which breaks the plasmodesmal connections among themselves. The separated mother cells round off and undergo meiosis to produce tetrads of haploid microspores or pollen grains. The phenomena is called microsporogenesis. The pollen grains of a tetrad grow and separate from one another. However, they remain attached forming compound pollen grains in Typha. In Calotropis and related plants, all the pollen grains of another lobe remain united in a single sac called pollinium. Two pollinia of adjacent another are attached to produce a translator.

Its significance with reference to its chemical nature are as follows: It is one of the most resistant organic substance which can withstand high temperature, strong acids and alkali. No enzyme that degrades sporopollenin is so far known. This sporopollenin helps the pollen grain to be well preserved.

The flower: The flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms. It is meant for sexual reproduction. A typical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on the swollen end of the stalk or pedicel, called thalamus or receptacle. These are calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. Calyx and corolla are accessory organs, while androecium and gynoecium are reproductive organs. In some flowers like lily, the calyx and corolla are not distinct and are termed as perianth.
Parts of a Flower
Each flower normally has four floral whorls, viz., ca1yx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
Calyx. The calyx is the outermost whorl of the flower and the members are called sepals. Generally, sepals are green, leaf like and protect the flower in the bud stage. The calyx may be gamosepalous (sepals united) or polysepalous (sepals free).

Corolla. Corolla is composed of petals. Petals are usually brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination. Like calyx, corolla may be also free (gamopetalous) or united (polypetalous). The shape and colour of corolla vary greatly in plants. Corolla may be tubular, bell-shaped, funnel-shaped or wheel-shaped.
Androecium
Androecium is composed of stamens. Each stamen which represents the male reproductive organ consists of a stalk or a filament and an anther. Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, the pollen-sacs. The pollen grains are produced in pollen-sacs. A sterile stamen is called staminode.
Stamens of flower may be united with other members such as petals or among themselves. When stamens are attached to the petals, they are epipetalous as in brinjal, or epiphyllous when attached to the perianth as in the flowers of lily.
The stamens in a flower may either remain free (polyandrous) or may be united in varying degrees. The stamens may be united into one bunch or one bundle (monoadelphous) as in china rose, or two bundles (diadelphous) as in pea, or into more than two bundles (polyadelphous) as in citrus. There may be a variation in the length of filaments within a flower, as in Salvia and mustard.
Gynoecium
Gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower and is made up of one or more carpels. A carpel consists of three parts namely stigma, style and ovary. Ovary is the enlarged basal part, on which lies the elongated tube, the style. The style connects the ovary to the stigma. The stigma is usually at the tip of the style and is the receptive surface for pollen grains. Each ovary bears one or more ovules attached to a flattened, cushion-like placenta. When more than one carpel is present, they may be free (as in lotus and rose) and are called apocarpous. They are termed syncarpous when carpels are fused, as in mustard and tomato. After fertilisation, the ovules develop into seeds and the ovary matures into a fruit.

Life span of an organism is the time period from its birth to its natural death.

Gender division is a form of hierarchical social division based on social expectation and stereotypes:

1. Boys and girls are brought up to believe that the main responsibility of women is housework and bringing up children.
2. There is a sexual division of labour in most families where women do all the household chores and men work outside the home.
3. Majority of women do some paid work in addition to domestic labour both in rural and urban areas but work is not valued and does not get recognition.

The immediate adverse effects of drugs and alcohol abuse are manifested in the form of reckless behavior, vandalism and violence. Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure, heart failure or cerebral hemorrhage. A combination of drugs or their intake along with alcohol generally results in overdosing and even deaths.
Effect on Society and family: There may even be some far reaching implications of drug / alcohol abuse. If a abuser is unable to get money to buy drugs/ alcohol he / she may turn to stealing. The adverse effects are just not restricted to the person who is using drugs or alcohol. At times, a drug / alcohol addict becomes the cause of mental and financial distress to his / her entire family and friends.
Effects of intravenous drug administration: Those who take drugs intravenously (direct injection into the vein using a needle and syringe), are much more likely to acquire serious infections like AIDS and hepatitis B.
Long term implications of Alcohol Abuse : The use of alcohol during adolescence may also have long term effects. It could lead to heavy drinking in adulthood. The chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
The use of drugs and alcohol during pregnancy is also known to adversely affect the foetus.
Implications of Performance enhancement drugs on athletes: The side effects of the use of anabolic steroids in females include masculinisation (features like males), increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal menstrual cycles, excessive hair growth on the face and body, enlargement of ********, deepening of voice. In males it includes acne, increased aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, reduction of size of the testicles, decreased sperm production, potential for kidney and liver dysfunction, breast enlargement premature baldness, enlargement of the prostate gland. In the adolescent male or female, severe facial and body acne, and premature closure of the growth centres of the long bones may result in stunted growth.

Mendel followed the inheritance of 7 traits in pea plants, and each trait had 2 forms. He identified pure-breeding pea plants that consistently showed 1 form of a trait after generations of self-pollination. He found that all of the first-generation (F1) hybrids looked like 1 of the parent plants.

Drosophila was chosen by Morgan for his experiments in genetics because-

1. Very short life cycle (2-weeks)
2. Can be grown easily in the laboratory
3. In single mating produce a large number of flies.
4. Male and female show many hereditary variations
5. It has only 4 pairs of chromosomes which are distinct in size and shape.

Enzymes are used mostly in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required. These enzymes are used in the production of sugars from starch, such as in making high-fructose corn syrup.

The first summit took place in Stockholm ([Sweden]) in 1972, the second in Nairobi (Kenya) in 1982, the third in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 1992 and the fourth in Johannesburg (South Africa) in 2002.