Red soil develops on crytalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau. Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
Characteristics:
1. The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
2. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
3. The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile,
4. whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility.
5. They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.

• All natural earthquakes occur in the lithosphere.
• Seismic wave studies offer a full picture of the layered interior.
• An earthquake is, simply put, shaking of the earth’s crust.
• It is caused due to the energy release, which triggers waves that travel in all directions.
• The emanation of energy occurs along a fault.
• A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
• Rocks along a fault generally move in opposing directions.

Following are the branches Physical Geography:

(i) Geomorphology is devoted to the study of landforms, their evolution and related processes.

(ii) Climatology encompasses the study of structure of atmosphere and elements of weather and climates and climatic types and regions.

(iii) Hydrology studies the realm of water over the surface of the earth including oceans, lakes, rivers and other water bodies and its effect on different life forms including human life and their activities.

(iv) Soil Geography is devoted to study the processes of soil formation, soil types, their fertility status, distribution and use

The convectional currents in the mantle are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the mantle portion. The currents move in radial direction and develop in cell patterns.

The reason behind the formation of deltas in the east coast lies in how the peninsular plateau is shaped. The plateau slopes steeply towards the west coast and has a gentle slope towards the eastern side. This results into:
short swift streams towards the west coast - due to short course these carry less sediment load and thus do not form deltas. (narmada and tapi are exceptions as they flow in rift valleys )
the east flowing rivers cover large distances and deposit their sediments at the coast forming deltas - eg Krishna-Godavari delta, Kaveri delta,etc.
With regards to Himalayan rivers, they form large extensive deltas irrespective of whether they flow east or west - Ganga-brahamputra delata in east coast and the Indus river delta in the west coast. These rivers have long courses, flow through soft sedimentary plains thus carrying large amounts of sediments forming massive deltas dwarfing those formed by the peninsular rivers.

Following are the branches Physical Geography:
(i)Geomorphology is devoted to the study of landforms, their evolution and related processes.
(ii)Climatology encompasses the study of structure of atmosphere and elements of weather and climates and climatic types and regions.
(iii)Hydrology studies the realm of water over the surface of the earth including oceans, lakes, rivers and other water bodies and its effect on different life forms including human life and their activities.

(iv)Soil Geography is devoted to study the processes of soil formation, soil types, their fertility status, distribution and use

Physical geography was conventionally subdivided into geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, and biogeography, but is now more holistic in systems analysis of recent environmental and Quaternary change. Geography is divided into two main branches: human geography and physical geography. There are additional branches in geography such as regional geography, cartography, and integrated geography.

These sub-fields of physical geography study processes and patterns in the natural environment ranging from the oceans to physical land to the atmosphere.

• Biogeography. ...
• Climatology. ...
• Coastal Geography. ...
• Environmental Geography. ...
• Geomorphology. ...
• Glaciology. ...
• Hydrology. ...
• Landscape Ecology.

The four historical traditions in geographical research are spatial analyses of natural and the human phenomena, area studies of places and regions, studies of human-land relationships, and the Earth sciences. A spatial dimension that included in the location such as the study of the place and space, movement and the transportation. Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth's surface and the human societies spread across it. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change over time.

The geographical phenomena, both the physical and human, are not static but highly dynamic. They change over times as a result of the interactive processes between ever changing earth and untiring and ever-active human beings.

1. Primitive human societies were directly dependent on their immediate environment. Human beings have come to terms with nature through adaptation and modification.

2. The present society has passed the stage of primitive .societies, which were directly dependent on their immediate physical environment for sustenance. Present societies have modified their natural environment by inventing and using technology and thus, have expanded the horizon of their operation by appropriate utilisation of the resources provided by nature.

3. With the gradual development of technology, human beings were able to loosen the shackles of their physical environment. Technology helped in reducing the harshness of labour, increased labour efficiency and provided leisure to human beings to attend to the higher needs of life. It also increased the scale of production and the mobility of labour. The interaction between the physical environment and human beings has put their imprints everywhere and created new possibilities in collaboration with nature. Thus, we find humanised nature and naturalised human beings and geography studies this interactive relationship.

4. The space got organised with the help of the means of transportation and communication network. The links (routes) and nodes (settlements of all types and hierarchies) integrated the space and gradually, it got organised.

5. It takes note of the associations and interrelationships between the phenomena over space and interprets them providing explanations for these patterns. It also takes note of the associations and inter-relationships between the phenomena resulting from the dynamic interaction between human beings and their physical environment.

The systematic approach studies only one issue and continues to examine its spatial variations. That means related to different spaces, you study your location.


On the other hand, the regional approach studies the multiple characteristics after dividing or segmenting the location at hand, on the basis of region. Meaning you divide your location into regions, next you study characteristics of each region.

Dualism in geography refers to parallel theories of the same subject but exist in two different forms.