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The main sources of information regarding the interior of the earth our direct sources and indirect sources. Direct sources includes mining, bores and wells and volcanic eruption. Indirect sources are density, temperature pressure, meteors, gravitation , systemic activity and magnetic field .

The major approaches to study geography have been

• Systematic and
• Regional.

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Physical Geography	Human Geography
Physical geography Looks at the Natural process of the Earth, such as climate and plate tectonics, wind movements etc	Human geography looks at the impact and behaviour of people and their implications in the physical world
Areas of Physical Geography include: Geomorphology: The shape of the structure of the Earth and how they were formed Hydrology: Study of Earth’s Water Glaciology: Study of Earth’s glaciers and ice sheets Climatology: Study of the Earth’s climateAreas  of Human Geography include:	Cultural Geography: How things like religion, language and government vary across the world Development Geography: Standards of living and quality of life across the world Historical Geography: How people have studied and thought about geography in the past Urban Geography: Cities and Built-u

 

The importance of tides are:

 

 

• They can cause a change in landforms of the Earth. While they can destroy coastlines, they also help in the formation of creeks and inlets.

   

• Strong tides help in the building of lower flood plains of rivers. These are very fertile.

   

• Since the debris is swept away by tides, they help to keep the harbours clean.

   

• In cold countries, tides bring in salt water to the shore and their continuous movement prevents the harbour from becoming ice bound.

   

• The low lying areas of the sea coast during high tides trap water which is used for the manufacturing of salt. In India, along the west coast, salt is manufactured in this manner.

   

• The alternate rise and fall of the tides help the fisherman to sail out and return back to the coast with the tides.

   

• Tidal energy is fast becoming an important non conventional source of energy. They are used in the production of electricity along the Gulf of Kutch and in the state of Gujarat.

   

 

Foliation is the result of the parallel arrangement of (micas, etc.) in a plane perpendicular to the maximum principal applied stress. A lineation is caused by a similar growth of elongate minerals (eg. hornblende) in this plane.  

Geography is an integrated discipline. 1. Geography and History: The geographical factors have modified the course of history in different parts of the world. Every geographical phenomenon undergoes change through time and can be explained temporarily. The changes in landforms, climate, vegetation, economic activities, occupations and cultural developments have followed a definite historical course. 2.Geography and Civics: The core concern of political science is territory, people and sovereignty while political geography is also interested in the study of the state as a spatial unit as well as people and their political behaviour. 3. Geography and Economics: Economics deals with basic attributes of the economy such as production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each of these attributes also has spatial aspects and here comes the role of economic geography to study the spatial aspects of production, distribution, exchange and consumption.

a cloud made of very small drops of water in the air just above the ground, that makes it difficult to see

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Factors Influencing Nature and Movement of Ocean Currents:

1. Factors related to the earth’s rotation: Gravitational force and force of deflection.

2. Factors originating within the sea: Atmospheric pressure, winds, precipitation, evaporation and insolation.

3. Factors originating within the sea: Pressure gradient, temperature difference, salinity, density and melting of ice.

4. Factors modifying the ocean currents: Direction and shape of the coast, seasonal variations and bottom topography.

According to this theory, the intense heat generated by radioactive substances in the mantle (100-2900 km below the earth surface) seeks a path to escape and gives rise to the formation of convection currents in the mantle.

The three sets of questions are :

(i)Questions about what, which are related to the identification of patterns of natural and cultural features.

(ii)Questions about where. Some questions are related to the distribution of the natural and cultural features.

(iii)Questions related to why. It is related to the explanation or the causal relationship between feature and phenomena.

Geography is a discipline of synthesis. It attempts spatial synthesis, and history attempts temporal synthesis. Geography as an integrating discipline has an interface with numerous natural and social sciences. All the sciences, whether natural or social, have one basic objective, understanding reality.

Northern Hemisphere

India is located latitudinally in the Northern Hemisphere and longitudinally in the Eastern Hemisphere. It extends from 80 4' N to 370 6' N latitude and 680 7' E to 970 25' E longitude.

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• Cataclastic metamorphism occurs along with the tectonic plate faults where the rocks get rubbed with each other which results in the grain size reduction.

• Transformation of these rocks are classified as one which could not form non foliated rock and is of low grade.

• Circulation of rock results in huge number of mineral water chemical reactions which results in different kinds of precious metals and stones.

Answer: The oceanic crust is layer of earth is also known as sima
The oceanic crust is called ‘sima’. The root of the word sima is ‘si’ from silica and ‘ma’ from magnesium.

• Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge.

• Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.

• This theory was proposed by Hess in 1961. He argued that constant eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side. Thus,the ocean floor spreads.

• The younger age of the oceanic crust as well as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does not cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess think about the consumption of the oceanic crust.

• He further maintained that the ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic eruptions at the crest, sinks down at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.

Wheat

Rabi crops are known as winter crops. They are grown in October or November. The crops are then harvested in spring. These crops require frequent irrigation because these are grown in dry areas. Wheat, gram, barley are some of the rabi crops grown in India.

Examples of Rabi Crops

Following are some of the examples of rabi crops:

• Wheat
• Barley
• Oats
• Pulses
• Mustard
• Linseed

The metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage. They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth’s surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it.

Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism, which means “change in form”. The original rock is subjected to heat with temperatures greater than 150 to 200°C and pressure around 1500 bars, causing profound physical and/or chemical change.

 metamorphic rock is a type of rock which has been changed by extreme heat and pressure.

The types of metamorphic rocks depend upon the original rocks that were subjected to metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are classified into two major types:

(i)foliated rocks 

(ii)non-foliated rocks

Formation of metamorphic rocks : These rocks are formed due to thermal metamorphism.

It is of two types :

(i)Contact metamorphism: In contact metamorphism the rocks come into the contact with hot magma and lava and the rock material is recrystallized under high pressure and temperature.

(ii)Regional metamorphism: In regional metamorphism, rocks under go recrystallization due to deformation caused by tectonic shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.

The sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material within bodies of water and at the surface of the earth. The process that causes various organic materials and minerals to settle in a place is termed as sedimentation. Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.

Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water.

 

Sedimentary rocks are formed from those materials which are deposited at favourable sites by agents of denudation such as river, wind, glacier and sea waves. The process is called the lithification.

The sedimentary rocks are formed in different ways.

(i)The layers of deposits : Loose materials or sediments are deposited in the layers.

(ii)Stratification : The sediments are deposited in the layers. Materials such as clay, silt, sand, etc. settle down in due course.

(iii)Solidification: The loose material gets converted into hard and compact rocks.

 Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. Igneous rock may form with or without crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from partial melts of existing rocks in either a planet’s mantle or crust. Typically, the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.

Igneous rocks are those rocks which have been formed by the cooling and solidification of molten natural matter of the earth.

The igneous rocks are formed when magma cools and turns into solid forms. The process of the cooling and solidification can happen in the earth's crust as well as on the surface.

Characteristics of igneous rocks are described below :

(i)These rocks do not have particles and layers.

(ii)These rocks are compact and massive.

(iii)These rocks are crystalline.

(iv)The igneous rocks are extremely hard and resistant.

(v)These rocks do not possess fossils of plants or animals.

(vi)These rocks are thermal in origin.

The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the three rock types igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

 

Rock Cycle

The process of transformation of rocks from one form to an other in a cyclic manner is known as the rock cycle. It includes the following processes:

• Hot lava cools down to form igneous rocks.
• These igneous rocks are then broken down into small particles which are transported and then deposited. This results in the formation of sedimentary rocks
• When these igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure, they change into metamorphic rocks.
• These metamorphic rocks under heat and pressure breakdown and form hot lava.
• This hot magma then again cools down and forms igneous rocks.