Hund’s rule

• According to this rule, the electrons are filled in the degenerate orbitals of the same subshell.
• Electron pairing in p, d and f orbitals cannot be done until each sub-shell is occupied singly.
• This is because electrons are the same in charge and they repel each other. This repulsion is minimized if two electrons move away from each other by acquiring different degenerate orbitals.
• All the orbitals which are singly occupied have parallel spins which can be either clockwise or anticlockwise.
• If the electrons have parallel spin then there will be less inter-electronic repulsions and high spin multiplicity.
• So in order to maximize spin multiplicity, the pairing of electrons in a sub-shell does not take place until each sub-shell is singly occupied.

Surface Tension

• Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface which arises due to the fact that surface molecules have extra energy.
• Surface energy is the extra energy which the molecules at the surface have.
• Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface because the molecules have extra energy.
• Surface energy is defined as surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.

Viscosity

• Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow.
• Viscosity is sometimes also understood as frictional forces that act in between fluid and the surface of contact. The surface can either be a solid surface like a pipe and <a href="https://byjus.com/chemistry/water/">water</a> can be the fluid.

The ideal gas equation is, 

                         PV = nRT 

where, P= pressure of the gas;  V=volume of the gas;  n= Number of Moles;  T=Absolute temperature; R=Ideal Gas constant also known as Boltzmann Constant = 0.082057 L atm K^-1 mol^-1.

Using this equation, the study of any gas is possible under assumptions of STP conditions and subjecting the gas to reasonable restrictions to make it behave similarly to an Ideal gas.

Both ionic product and solubility product represent the product of the concentrations of the ions in the solution. The term ionic product has a broad meaning since, it is applicable to all types of solutions, either unsaturated or saturated and varies accordingly.

On the other hand, the term solubility product is applied only to a saturated solution in which there exists a dynamic equilibrium between the undissolved salt and the ions present in solution. Thus the solubility product is in fact the ionic product for a saturated solution at a constant temperature.

Chemical Properties of Alkynes

Acidic nature

Coming to the chemical properties of alkynes, we begin with their slightly acidic nature. Now Alkynes are slightly electronegative in nature. The triply bonded carbon atoms in alkynes are sp hybridized, Whereas like in alkanes the single bond atoms are sp3 hybridized, causing the difference in the electronegativity. This makes it easier for them to attract the shared electron pair of the C-H bond.

So when we react a strong base like NaNH2 with ethyne, we will get sodium acetylide and liberated hydrogen (H2) gas. But such reactions will not happen in alkanes and alkenes. The conclusion being that the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon-carbon triple bond in alkynes are slightly acidic in nature. It is to be noted the other hydrogen atoms baring these ones are not acidic.

HC ≡ CH + Na → HC ≡ C^– Na⁺ + 1/2H₂

Addition Reactions

Under suitable conditions (temperature and pressure) alkynes will undergo hydration reactions quite easily. Alkynes will react with halogens, hydrogen and other such elements to give a saturated compound as a product. Since they have a triple bond, two atoms of H2 or halides or halogens can be added to its structure.

1] Addition of Dihydrogen

The reaction occurs in presence of a catalyst such as Nickel or Platinum or Palladium. Here the addition of hydrogen to the alkyne gives us an alkene.

C₃H₄(g) + 2H₂(g)  C₃H₈(g)

2] Addition of Halogens

When alkynes and halogens like Bromine react, halogen will add itself to the structure of the alkynes and result in halogen substituted alkenes. The resulting product will be tetrabromopropane.

(Source: chemistryassignment)

3] Addition of Water

Just like other hydrocarbons (alkanes and alkenes) alkynes also do not react with a water molecule. This is called immiscibility. But if alkynes is bubbled through dilute sulphuric acid (about 40%) in presence of the catalyst mercuric Sulphate, then a reaction occurs. The products will be carbonyl compounds, and such a reaction can be called a hydration reaction.

(Source: chemistryassignment)

4] Polymerization

Alkynes can undergo linear and cyclic polymerization under suitable conditions. They polymerize to give compounds that have a higher molecular weight than the original alkyne. Like for example, ethyne will polymerize to give polyacetylene or polyethene (of higher molecular weight), This is an example of linear polymerization.

For cyclic polymerization, high temperatures and the presence of a catalyst is required. Like passing ethyne through a red-hot iron tube at a minimum of 877K which gives benzene.

Chemical Properties of Alkynes

Acidic nature

Coming to the chemical properties of alkynes, we begin with their slightly acidic nature. Now Alkynes are slightly electronegative in nature. The triply bonded carbon atoms in alkynes are sp hybridized, Whereas like in alkanes the single bond atoms are sp3 hybridized, causing the difference in the electronegativity. This makes it easier for them to attract the shared electron pair of the C-H bond.

So when we react a strong base like NaNH2 with ethyne, we will get sodium acetylide and liberated hydrogen (H2) gas. But such reactions will not happen in alkanes and alkenes. The conclusion being that the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon-carbon triple bond in alkynes are slightly acidic in nature. It is to be noted the other hydrogen atoms baring these ones are not acidic.

HC ≡ CH + Na → HC ≡ C^– Na⁺ + 1/2H₂

Addition Reactions

Under suitable conditions (temperature and pressure) alkynes will undergo hydration reactions quite easily. Alkynes will react with halogens, hydrogen and other such elements to give a saturated compound as a product. Since they have a triple bond, two atoms of H2 or halides or halogens can be added to its structure.

1] Addition of Dihydrogen

The reaction occurs in presence of a catalyst such as Nickel or Platinum or Palladium. Here the addition of hydrogen to the alkyne gives us an alkene.

C₃H₄(g) + 2H₂(g)  C₃H₈(g)

2] Addition of Halogens

When alkynes and halogens like Bromine react, halogen will add itself to the structure of the alkynes and result in halogen substituted alkenes. The resulting product will be tetrabromopropane.

(Source: chemistryassignment)

3] Addition of Water

Just like other hydrocarbons (alkanes and alkenes) alkynes also do not react with a water molecule. This is called immiscibility. But if alkynes is bubbled through dilute sulphuric acid (about 40%) in presence of the catalyst mercuric Sulphate, then a reaction occurs. The products will be carbonyl compounds, and such a reaction can be called a hydration reaction.

(Source: chemistryassignment)

4] Polymerization

Alkynes can undergo linear and cyclic polymerization under suitable conditions. They polymerize to give compounds that have a higher molecular weight than the original alkyne. Like for example, ethyne will polymerize to give polyacetylene or polyethene (of higher molecular weight), This is an example of linear polymerization.

For cyclic polymerization, high temperatures and the presence of a catalyst is required. Like passing ethyne through a red-hot iron tube at a minimum of 877K which gives benzene.