In Meiotic division, each cell divides into 4 daughter cells. During pollen grain formation, pollen grain mother cell divides meiotically to proudce 4 cell tetrad that differente from each other to form 4 pollen grains. so, minium number of cell division required is 16.

All parts of cell have some function, independent living requires all these functions to be done accuretly. so, organisms having incomplete cellular structure will not survive.

Following are the characters of prokaryotic cell - 

1) Genetic material is not organised in true nucleus .

2) It devoid of different  cellorganelles except few .

Phycocolloids are basically polysachharides that are derived from seaweeds.

The three major phycocolloids are alginates, agars, and carrageenans. Alginates are extracted primarily from brown seaweeds, and agar and carrageenan are extracted from red seaweeds. These phycocolloids are polymers of chemically modified sugar molecules, such as galactose in agars and carrageenans, or organic acids, such as mannuronic acid and glucuronic acid in alginates. Most phycocolloids can be safely consumed by humans and other animals, and many are used in a wide variety of prepared foods, such as ready-mix cakes, instant puddings and pie fillings, and artificial dairy toppings.

Ans. Vernalization is a process of shortening of the juvenile or vegetative phase and hastening flowering by a previous cold treatment.

Site for Vernalization: The stimulus of vernalization is perceived only by the meristem­atic cells, e.g., shoot tip, embryo tips, root apex, developing leaves, etc..

Importance of Vernalization:

• Vernalization can help in shortening the juvenile or vegetative period of plant and bring about early flowering. It is not only applicable to temperate plants but also to some tropical plants, e.g., Wheat, Rice, Millets, Cotton,
• It increases yield, resistance to cold and diseases, and
• Kernel wrinkles of Triticale can be removed by vernalization.

Rhizosphera are Pneumatophores that works as respiratory organs.

Heparin is an anticoagulant 

The substances that prevents the coagulation of blood is called anticoagulant.it is used during surgery to prevent the blood clotting in blood vessels.

Ans. The hydrostatic pressure inside the blood capillaries is greater than that in the tissues, pushing fluid out. The fluid that leaks out into the interstices among the cells is a little of the watery part of the blood plasma, with all the substances it contains except for the larger proteins.

Also a very small fraction of the plasma proteins escape from blood capillaries in the tissues.

Hence lymph contains less proteins than blood plasma. Lymph contains relatively less of the larger proteins compared to plasma suggesting that molecular size is important in lymph filtration.

Ans. Some benefita of doing *** are as follow:

• Sexual activity provides many of the same benefits to your heart as exercise
• It also keeps levels of estrogen and testosterone in balance, which is important for heart health.
•  Sexual activity, and specifically intercourse, is linked to better stress response and lower blood pressure.

Water potential of pure water or solution decrases on applying pressure more than atmosheric presssure as solubility of solution increase at higher pressure that results into lower water potential.

Nodules are the structures seen on the roots of leguminous plants formed due to adherence of Rhizobium sp. Legumes release various nutrients from their roots, which trigger the production of nod factors by the bacteria. When the nod factor is sensed by the root, a number of biochemical and morphological changes happen: cell division is triggered in the root to create the nodule, and the root hair growth is redirected to wind around the bacteria multiple times until it fully encapsulates 1 or more bacteria. The bacteria encapsulated divide multiple times, forming a microcolony. From this microcolony, the bacteria enter the developing nodule through a structure called an infection thread, which grows through the root hair into the basal part of the epidermis cell, and onwards into the root cortex; they are then surrounded by a plant-derived membrane and differentiate into bacteroids that fix nitrogen 

Rhizobia normally live in the soil, but when there is limited soil nitrogen, <a data-push="true" data-track="Sneak:clicked_mentioned_key_term" href="https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/legume/">legumes</a> release flavonoids which signal to rhizobia that the plant is seeking <a data-push="true" data-track="Sneak:clicked_mentioned_key_term" href="https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/symbiotic/">symbiotic</a> <a data-push="true" data-track="Sneak:clicked_mentioned_key_term" href="https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/bacterium/">bacteria</a>.When exposed to flavonoids, the Rhizobia release <a data-push="true" data-track="Sneak:clicked_mentioned_key_term" href="https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/nodulation-factor/">nodulation factor</a>, which stimulates the plant to create deformed root hairs. Rhizobia then form an "<a data-push="true" data-track="Sneak:clicked_mentioned_key_term" href="https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/infection/">infection</a> thread" which allows them to enter the root cells through the root hairs.Once the rhizobia are inside the root cells, the root cells divide rapidly, forming a nodule.The rhizobia create ammonia from nitrogen in the air, which is used by the plant to create <a data-push="true" data-track="Sneak:clicked_mentioned_key_term" href="https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/amino-acid/">amino acids</a> and <a data-push="true" data-track="Sneak:clicked_mentioned_key_term" href="https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/definition/nucleotide/">nucleotides</a>. The plant provides the bacteria with sugars.




 

The rhizobia resides inside the root and divides to form nodule.This rhizobia forms ammonia which helps to form nucleotides and amino acids in plants.

Once the rhizobia are inside the root cells, the root cells divide rapidly, forming a nodule. The rhizobia create ammonia from nitrogen in the air, which is used by the plant to create amino acids and nucleotides. The plant provides the bacteria with sugars

It helps to transport hydrophilic or lipophyllic molecules across the membtane

The proteins present in the plasma of human blood are a mixture of simple proteins, glycoproteins, lipoproteins and other conjugated proteins are called “Plasma Proteins“. These may be separated by salt precipitation, immunological technique and electrophoresis.

Functions of Plasma Protern :

1. Protein Nutrition: Plasma proteins act as a source of protein for the tissues, whenever the need arises
2. Osmotic Pressure and water balance: Plasma proteins exert an osmotic pressure of about 25 mm of Hg and therefore play an important role in maintaining a proper water balance between the tissues and blood. Plasma albumin is mainly responsible for this function due to its low molecular weight and quantitative dominance over other proteins.
3. Buffering action: Plasma proteins help in maintaining the pH of the body by acting asampholytes. At normal blood pH they act as acids and accept captions.
4. Transport of Lipids: One of the most important functions of plasma proteins us to transport lipids and lipid soluble substances in the body.
5. Transport of other substances: In addition to lipids, plasma proteins also transport several metals and other substances α2-Globulins transport copper (Ceruloplasmin), bound hemoglobin (haptoglobin) and thyroxine (glycoprotein) and non-heme iron is transported by transferrin present in β-globulin fraction. Calcium, Magnesium, some drugs and dyes and several cations and anions are transported by plasma albumin.
6. Blood Coagulation: Prothrombin present in α2-globulin fraction and fibrinogen, participate in the blood clotting process as follows.

C 3 cycle or Calvin cycle, although is a light independent reaction but it is coupled with the  thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is requirred. Therefore at night time Calvin cycle does not take place

Despite its widespread names (both light-independent and dark reactions), these reactions do not occur in the dark or at night.

As shown in the above diagram it can be stated that ATP production in case of photoionization of chlorophyll follow the chemiosmotic hypothesis of ATP synthesis

According to the Chemiosmotic hypothesis the ATP is synthesized in respiring cells from the electrochemical gradiance across the inner membrane of the mitochondria by using the energy of NADH and FADH₂ formed from the breaking down of the energy rich molecules such as glucose.

 Photoactivation of chlorophyll a results in the splitting of water molecules and the transfer of energy to ATP and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).

• light energy is trapped by chlorophyll to make ATP (photophosphorylation)

• at the same time water is split into oxygen, hydrogen ions and free electrons:

  2H₂O    4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e^- (photolysis)

• the electrons then react with a carrier molecule nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), changing it from its oxidised state (NADP⁺) to its reduced state (NADPH):

  NADP⁺ + 2e^- + 2H⁺    NADPH + H⁺ 

 The components of non-cyclic phosphorylation are found in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. Electrons passing through the transport chain provide energy to pump H⁺ ions from the stroma, across the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid compartment. H⁺ ions are more concentrated in the thylakoid compartment than in the stroma. We say there is an electrochemical gradient. H⁺ ions diffuse from the high to the low regions of concentration. This drives the production of ATP.

Air bladder is a gas filled sac present in fishes. It helps in maintaining buoyancy. Thus, it helps fishes to ascend or descend and stay in the water current. It is also know as Gas bladder.

The position of ovaries in cockroach is  2nd to 6th abdominal segment.

Whenever the esupply of an essential element becomes limited, plant growth is retarded. The concentration of the essential element below which plant growth is retarded is termed as critical concentration. The element is said to be deficient when present below the critical concentration.

3 atp are produced from one molecule of NADH and the breaking of NADH into ATP occurs through a cycle named ETS(electron transport system)

We get 3 ATP per molecule of NADH

A thylakoid is a membrane-bound compartment inside chloroplast and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependant reactions of photosythesis. Thylakoids consist of a thylakoid membranesurrounding a thylakoid lumen. Chloroplast thylakoids frequently form stacks of disks referred to as grana (singular: granum). Grana are connected by intergranal or stromathylakoids, which join granum stacks together as a single functional compartment.

Any permanent change in our bodies be it increment in height,weight,homeostasis ,senescence,catabolism,anabolism e.t.c.

thank you very much.

Growth refers to the irreversible increase in size or weight. 

Growth refers to a positive change in size, and/or maturation, often over a period of time. Growth can occur as a stage of maturation or a process toward fullness or fulfillment. It can also perpetuate endlessly, for example, as detailed by some theories of the ultimate fate of the universe.

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The cell cycle or cell-division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. The series of steps take place as given below:

The cycle of events in which cell passes during cell division is called cell cycle. it consits of different passes such as S-phase, G-phase and M-phase.

Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves.

Transpiration pull is the force which aids in drawing the water upward from roots to leaves. In leaves, some amount of water is used for photosynthesis and excess water is released into atmosphere. Water molecules stick to one another through cohesion forming a column in the xylem. The negative pressure created by transpiration pull exerts a force on the water particles causing their upward movement in xylem.

Root pressure is osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through a plant stem to the leaves. Root pressure is caused by active distribution of mineral nutrient ions into the root xylem. Without transpiration to carry the ions up the stem, they accumulate in the root xylem and lower the water potential. Water then diffuses from the soil into the root xylem due to osmosis. Root pressure is caused by this accumulation of water in the xylem pushing on the rigid cells. Root pressure provides a force, which pushes water up the stem to a certain level.

Root pressure is the positive pressure that develops in the xylem sap of the root of plants.

Transpiration pull-Water is mostly pulled due to driving force of transpiration from the leaves.

Glycosidic bonds are the bonds formed between 2 monosaccharides by the elimination of water. Glycosidic bonds can take place between 2 chains of carbohydrates to form a bigger chain or polysaccharide. It may or may not involve molecules other than a carbohydrate. For example, a glycosidic bond is created when glucose reacts with methanol forming an ether linkage. 

What Causes Insulin Shock? Having too much insulin in your blood can lead to having too little glucose. If your blood sugar falls too low, your body no longer has enough fuel to carry out its regular functions. In insulin shock, your body becomes so starved for fuel that it begins to shut down.

The seeds that contain two cotyledons are called docots seeds and plants are called dicotyledenous plants.

On the basis of venation monocots have parallel venation and dicots have reticulate venation

Monocots consits of single cotyledons but dicots consisits of two cotyledons. In monocots plant cambium is not formed for secondary growth but in dicots cambium is formed for secondary growth to increase the girth of the plant.

Addition of phosphat group (PO₄) results into organic compound results into phosphorylated compounds.