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Meghna Thapar 5 years, 7 months ago
In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, each pyruvate molecule loses one carbon atom with the release of carbon dioxide. During the breakdown of pyruvate, electrons are transferred to NAD+ to produce NADH, which will be used by the cell to produce ATP. ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the main source of energy in cells, must bind to a magnesium ion in order to be biologically active. ... As such, magnesium plays a role in the stability of all polyphosphate compounds in the cells, including those associated with the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
Posted by Chinmay Pujari 7 years, 2 months ago
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Meghna Thapar 5 years, 7 months ago
Photosynthesis in higher plants involves the following processes:
- Light Reaction
- Dark Reaction
Light Reaction
- This phenomenon occurs in the presence of light.
- The pigment absorbs light and produces energy in the form of ATP.
- The process involves- absorption of light, water splitting, the release of oxygen, and formation of ATP and NADPH.
- The protein-bound pigment molecules form the light-harvesting complexes present within two photosystems- PS-I and PS-II. Each photosystem has a reaction centre consisting of chlorophyll a molecule, and antennae containing accessory pigments.
- The reaction centre for PS-I is P-700 because the absorption peak for chlorophyll a is at 700 nm while that for PS-II is P-680 because the absorption peak for chlorophyll a is at 680 nm.
Photophosphorylation
The formation of ATP in the presence of sunlight is called photophosphorylation. It is of two types:
- Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
- Cyclic photophosphorylation
Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
- PS-II absorbs light at a wavelength of 680 nm and causes excitation in the electrons. These excited electrons are accepted by an electron acceptor and transferred to the electron transport system.
- The electrons from the electron transport system are transferred to the PS-I. At the same time, the electrons at PS-I receive a wavelength of 700 nm and get excited.
- An electron from the electron acceptor is added to NADP+, which is then reduced to NADPH+ H+.
- The electrons lost by PS-II does not return to it and hence named non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
- In this, both the photosystems are involved.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation
- In cyclic photophosphorylation, only PS-I is involved.
- The electrons circulate within the photosystem which results in a cyclic flow of electrons.
- This only forms ATP and not NADPH+ H+.
Water Splitting
The light-dependent splitting of water is called photolysis. This process is associated with PS-II in which manganese and chlorine play an important role. The electrons lost from P680 are replaced by the electrons formed in this process. A molecule of water splits to release oxygen upon the absorption of light by P680.
Dark Reaction
This process occurs in the absence of light in the stroma of the chloroplasts. The following cycles are involved in the process:
Calvin Cycle (C3 Cycle)
This cycle involves the following steps:
- Carbon-fixation: Ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate combines with carbon dioxide to fix it to a 3 carbon compound 3-phosphoglyceric acid. The enzyme RuBisCO is involved in the process.
- Reduction: 2 molecules of ATP and NADPH fixes one molecule of carbon dioxide to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
- Regeneration: Some glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate molecules undergo a series of reactions to form glucose while the RuBP regenerates to continue the cycle.
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Seed dormancy is defined as a state in which seeds are prevented from germinating even under environmental conditions normally favourable for germination. These conditions are a complex combination of water, light, temperature, gasses, mechanical restrictions, seed coats, and hormone structures. Seed dormancy allows seeds to overcome periods that are unfavourable for seedling established and is therefore important for plant ecology and agriculture. Several processes are known to be involved in the induction of dormancy and in the switch from the dormant to the germinating state.
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| C3 PATHWAY | C4 PATHWAY |
| Ribulose bisphosphate is the primary acceptor of CO2. | Phosphoenol pyruvate is the primary acceptor of CO2. |
| Chloroplasts present are only of one type. | Chloroplasts of two different types are present in bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells. |
| Anatomy of leaves does not resemble Kranz anatomy. | Leaves exhibited Kranz anatomy. |
| Phosphoglyceric acid is synthesised as the product. | Oxaloacetic acid is synthesised as the product. |
| Mesophyll cells exhibit Calvin cycle. | Bundle sheath cells exhibit Calvin cycle. |
| Photorespiration is observed. | Negligible amount of photorespiration. |
| Optimum temperature required for photosynthesis is between 20 degrees Celsius to 25 degrees Celsius. | Optimum temperature required for photosynthesis is between 30 degrees Celsius to 45 degrees Celsius. |
| This cycle is less efficient in utilising CO2. | Highly efficient in utilising CO2. |
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Yogita Ingle 7 years, 2 months ago
The trait which is expressed in a phenotype is called dominant trait and the suppressed one is called recessive trait. Incomplete dominance is a type of dominance where a trait incompletely dominates over the other and results in an intermediate progeny.
Co-dominance is the type of dominance where the offspring show similarity to both the parents and it is due to the blending of alleles.
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