he expected outcomes of democracy are as follows:

(i) A government that is chosen and accountable to the people is called democratic government.

(ii) A government that is responsive to the needs of the people.

(iii) Economic growth and development reducing all forms of inequality and end of poverty.

(iv) Accommodating all social diversities.

(v) Ensuring the dignity and freedom of the individuals.

• The best laws are those which empower people to carry out democratic reforms.
• The Right to Information Act empowers the people to find out the role of government and makes its functioning more transparent.
• The citizens have the right to ask what happened and how it happened. It helps them check corruption, malpractices, etc.

• Exports declined and import of textiles increased. That is, the Indian textile manufactures could neither sell their goods outside India nor could they sell their goods inside India.
• Import of English textiles into India increased from 31 % to 50 %.
• As imported machine –made textiles was cheaper, the Indian weavers could not compete with it.
• Raw cotton from India was exported to feed the Cotton mills of England and the Indian textile industry was without enough raw materials.
• Soon mechanised textile mill were also set up in India and the hand -weavers were virtually without any work.

Mineral resources are limited. It takes million of years for their formation and therefore, these resources are non-renewable and non-replenishable. Increasing consumption and continued extraction of ores lead to increasing costs of extraction and a sharp decrease in their quality and quantity.

So, it is most important for us to conserve mineral resources as it is feared that with this rate of consumption the day is not far away when most of the metallic and non-metallic mineral reserves and fossil fuel deposits will be fully exhausted.

Conservation of mineral resources is essential because they are a country’s valuable possession. Some methods by which we can conserve minerals are:

• Minerals should be used in a planned and sustainable manner.
• Technology should be upgraded to allow the use of low-grade ore at low costs.
• Recycling of metals also results in the conservation of mineral resources.
• Non-conventional sources of energy should be harnessed for the generation of electricity.
• Small steps should be taken by every individual such as using public transport, car pooling and switching off lights and fans when not in use. (It is because 70% of electricity in India is generated by burning coal). Using power-saving devices also go a long way in conserving minerals and energy resources.

The first Indian newspaper was the weekly Bengal Gazette which was brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya.

In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalised the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ or full independence for India. It was declared that 26 January 1930, would be celebrated as the Independence Day when people were to take a pledge to struggle for complete independence. 

• The printing press first came to Goa with the Portuguese missionaries in the mid 16th century.
• Books were printed in Konkani and Kanara languages.
• Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book, in 1579 at Cochin.
• By 1710, Dutch protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them were translations of older works.
• By 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine.
• By the close of 18th century, a number of newspapers were published by Indians too. The first to appear was the weekly ‘Bengal Gazette’ brought out by Gangadhar Bhattacharya, who was close to Rammohan Roy.

Barriers or restrictions that are imposed by government on free import and export activities are called trade barrier. Tax on imports is a vital trade barrier. Government can use the trade barriers in the following ways :

(a) Increase or decrease of foreign trade of the country.
(b) With the help of trade barriers government can decide what kinds of goods and how much of each, should be traded in the country.

Democracies accommodate social diversity: 

1. It provides an opportunity for a harmonious social life. For example, in Belgium, the differences between ethnic populations were negotiated.

 2. No society can permanently resolve differences but democracy provides the opportunity to negotiate the differences and decide on what is better for everyone. 

3. Non-democratic regimes usually just ignore the internal problems or suppress it.

4. Democracy ensures inclusion of every group including minorities and its interests in the decision making. 

5. Democracy thereby reduces the chances of differences or conflicts becoming violent.

Marianne and Germania were the female allegories of France and German nations respectively.
Significance/importance of portraying Female Figures
The female allegories stood as personifications of the ‘Republic’ and ‘Liberty’. They were portrayed such that would instill a sense of nationality in the citizens of these countries.
In France Marianne’s characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic—the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of national symbol of unity. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves which stands for heroism.

In 1922 the Chauri Chaura incident where 22-23 policemen died due to violent class between people and police disheartened Gandhiji. He did not tolerate violence at any cost. Thus he called off Non-Cooperation Movement.

In the informal sector there is no supervisory body. The credit activities of this sector are only driven by profit with much higher interest rate. A high rate of interest means that a borrower spends more money to repay the loan and is left with less money for himself. This also leads to a debt trap.

 (i) Democracy produces a government that is accountable to the citizens and responsive to the needs and expectations of the citizens.
 (ii) Democracy is based on the idea of deliberation and negotiation.
 (iii) Democratic government develops mechanism for citizen to hold the government accountable.

Communalism can take several forms in politics as:—
(a) The most common expression of communalism is of communal superiority in our everyday beliefs. Militant religious groups are an example.
(b) Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form in riots. India and Pakistan suffered some of the worst communal riots at the time of partition.
(c) A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious community; it can take the form of a desire to form a separate political unit. An example are the separatist leaders in Kashmir.
(d) Political mobilization based on religion is another form of communalism. This involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal to bring the followers of one religion together in the political areas. Examples in India are politicians trying to influence voters from the two largest religious communities in the country.

Communalism implies a strong sense of belonging to a particular religious community to the exclusion of others. The concept of communalism holds that religious distinction is the most fundamental and overriding distinction that separates a particular community from others. Communalism as evident from the rise of politics based on religious identity has been an important factor in the Indian political system.

In Belgium, leaders recognised the existence of regional differences and cultural diversities. The Belgian government accommodated its diverse ethnic population in the following manner:

• Constitution says that the number of Dutch and French speaking ministers shall be equal in the Central government. Thus, no single community can make decisions unilaterally.
• Many powers of the Central Government have been given to the state governments, of the two regions of the country. The state governments are not subordinate to the Central government.
• Brussels has a separate government in which both the communities have equal representation.
• There is a third kind of government, called the ‘community government’. This government is elected by the people belonging to one language community—Dutch, French and German speaking, no matter where they live. This government has the power regarding cultural education and language related issues.
  These arrangements helped to avoid a civic strife between the two major communities and a possible division of the country on linguistic lines.

Competition from imported goods has benefitted people in India in the following ways
(a)  Indian producers have improved their technology and quality to compete with foreign goods. This has benefitted the buyers of the goods as well as the producers, who can now compete in the world market.
(b)  Prices of Indian goods have reduced to match those of foreign goods and so buyers of these items have benefitted.
(c)  Some Indian companies have entered into collaboration with the foreign companies and some MNCs have invested in Indian companies, thus benefiting both.

Mahatma Gandhi discovered salt was a common ingredient in the food of both rich and poor. He viewed the tax on salt and the monopoly of the Government on its production as downright oppressive.
On 31st January 1930, he sent a letter to Lord Irwin stating eleven wide ranging demands of various classes of India. The launch of Civil Disobedience was also stated.
On refusal to negotiate by the British, Mahatma Gandhi launched a salt March from Sabarmati Ashram to the coastal town of Dandi in Gujarat.
On 6th April Mahatma Gandhi broke the salt law manufactured salt by boiling sea water. This marked the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Over lapping social difference: If social differences overlap each other it may lead to social division and if one social difference is given preference then people would begin to think that they belong to different community. It always leads to social division and disintegration of the country. Example:- USA: The blacks are discriminated by the whites due to their poverty (racial discrimination).

Cross cutting social difference:  If social difference cross-cut each other we would find it difficult to find which group is against the other. These groups may have similar views on some issues and different on other issues.  It encourages diversity and accommodates unity. 
Example:- NETHERLAND: The main religion here is Christianity. They have division as Catholics and Protestants. Here class and religion cross-cut each other. Neither of them are rich or poor and do not have conflict between them.